Power control methods and apparatus

ABSTRACT

Methods and apparatus for providing and controlling power to at least some types of loads. In one example, a controlled predetermined power is provided to a load without requiring any feedback information from the load (i.e., without monitoring a load voltage and/or load current). In another example, a “feed-forward” power driver for an LED-based light source combines the functionality of a DC-DC converter and a light source controller, and is configured to control the intensity of light generated by the light source based on modulating the average power delivered to the light source in a given time period, without monitoring and/or regulating the voltage or current provided to the light source. In various examples, significantly streamlined circuits having fewer components, higher overall power efficiencies, and smaller space requirements are realized. Based on various power driver configurations, lighting apparatus incorporating one or more power drivers for one or more LED-based loads may be implemented, and multiple such lighting apparatus may be coupled together to form a lighting network in which operating power is efficiently provided throughout the network.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

The present application claims the benefit, under 35 U.S.C. §119(e), ofU.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/553,318, filed Mar. 15, 2004,entitled “Power Control Methods and Apparatus,” which application ishereby incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure relates generally to controlling power deliveredto a load. In some examples, a controlled predetermined power isprovided to a load without requiring any feedback from the load (e.g.,without monitoring load voltage and current) and/or regulation of loadvoltage or load current.

BACKGROUND

A DC-DC converter is a well-known electrical device that accepts a DCinput voltage and provides a DC output voltage. DC-DC convertersgenerally are configured to provide a regulated DC output voltage to aload based on an unregulated DC input voltage which in some cases isdifferent from the regulated output voltage. For example, in manyautomotive applications in which a battery provides a DC power sourcehaving an unregulated voltage of approximately 12 Volts, a DC-DCconverter may be employed to receive the unregulated 12 Volts DC as aninput and provide a regulated DC output voltage to drive variouselectronic circuitry in a vehicle (instrumentation, accessories, enginecontrol, lighting, radio/stereo, etc.). The regulated DC output voltagemay be lower, higher or the same as the input voltage from the battery.

More generally, a DC-DC converter may be employed to transform anunregulated voltage provided by any of a variety of DC power sourcessuch as batteries to a more appropriate regulated voltage for driving agiven load. In some cases, the unregulated DC input voltage may bederived from an AC power source, such as a 120 Vrms/60 Hz AC linevoltage which is rectified and filtered by a bridge rectifier/filtercircuit arrangement. In this case, as discussed further below,protective isolation components generally are employed in the DC-DCconverter to ensure safe operation, given the potentially dangerousvoltages involved.

FIG. 1 illustrates a circuit diagram of a conventional step-down DC-DCconverter 50 configured to provide a regulated DC output voltage 32(V_(out)) to a load 40, based on a higher unregulated DC input voltage30 (V_(in)). The step-down converter of FIG. 1 also is commonly referredto as a “buck” converter. From a functional standpoint, the buckconverter of FIG. 1 generally is representative of other types of DC-DCconverters, some examples of which are discussed in turn below.

DC-DC converters like the buck converter of FIG. 1 employ a transistoror equivalent device that is configured to operate as a saturated switchwhich selectively allows energy to be stored in an energy storage device(e.g., refer to the transistor switch 20 and the inductor 22 in FIG. 1).Although FIG. 1 illustrates such a transistor switch as a bipolarjunction transistor (BJT), field effect transistors (FETs) also may beemployed as switches in various DC-DC converter implementations. Byvirtue of employing such a transistor switch, DC-DC converters also arecommonly referred to as “switching regulators” due to their generalfunctionality.

In particular, the transistor switch 20 in the circuit of FIG. 1 isoperated to periodically apply the unregulated DC input voltage 30(V_(in)) across an inductor 22 (L) for relatively short time intervals(in FIG. 1 and the subsequent figures, unless otherwise indicated, asingle inductor is depicted to schematically represent one or moreactual inductors arranged in any of a variety of serial/parallelconfigurations to provide a desired inductance). During the intervals inwhich the transistor switch is “on” or closed (i.e., passing the inputvoltage V_(in) to the inductor), current flows through the inductorbased on the applied voltage and the inductor stores energy in itsmagnetic field. When the switch is turned “off” or opened (i.e., the DCinput voltage is removed from the inductor), the energy stored in theinductor is transferred to a filter capacitor 34 which functions toprovide a relatively smooth DC output voltage V_(out) to the load 40(i.e., the capacitor provides essentially continuous energy to the loadbetween inductor energy storage cycles).

More specifically, in FIG. 1, when the transistor switch 20 is on, avoltage V_(L)=V_(out)−V_(in) is applied across the inductor 22. Thisapplied voltage causes a linearly increasing current I_(L) to flowthrough the inductor (and to the load and the capacitor) based on therelationship V_(L)=L·dI_(L)/dt. When the transistor switch 20 is turnedoff, the current I_(L) through the inductor continues to flow in thesame direction, with the diode 24 (D1) now conducting to complete thecircuit. As long as current is flowing through the diode, the voltageV_(L) across the inductor is fixed at V_(out)−V_(diode), causing theinductor current I_(L) to decrease linearly as energy is provided fromthe inductor's magnetic field to the capacitor and the load. FIG. 2 is adiagram illustrating various signal waveforms for the circuit of FIG. 1during the switching operations described immediately above.

Conventional DC-DC converters may be configured to operate in differentmodes, commonly referred to as “continuous” mode and “discontinuous”mode. In continuous mode operation, the inductor current I_(L) remainsabove zero during successive switching cycles of the transistor switch,whereas in discontinuous mode, the inductor current starts at zero atthe beginning of a given switching cycle and returns to zero before theend of the switching cycle. To provide a somewhat simplified yetinformative analysis of the circuit of FIG. 1, the discussion belowconsiders continuous mode operation, and assumes for the moment thatthere are no voltage drops across the transistor switch when the switchis on (i.e., conducting) and that there is a negligible voltage dropacross the diode D1 while the diode is conducting current. With theforegoing in mind, the changes in inductor current over successiveswitching cycles may be examined with the aid of FIG. 3.

FIG. 3 is a graph on which is superimposed the voltage at the pointV_(X) shown in FIG. 1 (again, ignoring any voltage drop across the diodeD1) based on the operation of the transistor switch 20, and the currentthrough the inductor I_(L) for two consecutive switching cycles. In FIG.3, the horizontal axis represents time t and a complete switching cycleis represented by the time period T, wherein the transistor switch “on”time is indicated as t_(on) and the switch “off” time is indicated ast_(off) (i.e., T=ton+t_(off)).

For steady state operation, it should be appreciated that the inductorcurrent I_(L) at the start and end of a switching cycle is essentiallythe same, as can be observed in FIG. 3 by the indication I_(o).Accordingly, from the relation V_(L)=L·dI_(L)/dt, the change of currentdI_(L) over one switching cycle is zero, and may be given by:

${dI}_{L} = {0 = {\frac{1}{L}( {{\int_{0}^{t_{on}}{( {V_{in} - V_{out}} )\ {\mathbb{d}t}}} + {\int_{t_{on}}^{T}{( {- V_{out}} )\ {\mathbb{d}t}}}} )}}$which simplifies to

(V_(in) − V_(out))t_(on) − (V_(out))(T − t_(on)) = 0  or${\frac{V_{out}}{V_{in}} = {\frac{t_{on}}{T} = D}},$where D is defined as the “duty cycle” of the transistor switch, or theproportion of time per switching cycle that the switch is on andallowing energy to be stored in the inductor. From the foregoing, it canbe seen that the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage isproportional to D; namely, by varying the duty cycle D of the switch inthe circuit of FIG. 1, the output voltage V_(out) may be varied withrespect to the input voltage V_(in) but cannot exceed the input voltage,as the maximum duty cycle D is 1.

Hence, as mentioned earlier, the conventional buck converter of FIG. 1is particularly configured to provide to the load 40 a regulated outputvoltage V_(out) that is lower than the input voltage V_(in). To ensurestability of the output voltage V_(out), as shown in FIG. 1, the buckconverter employs a feedback control loop 46 to control the operation ofthe transistor switch 20. Generally, as indicated in FIG. 1 byconnection 47, power for various components of the feedback control loop46 may be derived from the DC input voltage V_(in) or alternativelyanother independent source of power.

In the feedback control loop 46 of FIG. 1, a scaled sample voltageV_(sample) of the DC output voltage V_(out) is provided as an input tothe feedback control loop 46 (e.g., via the resistors R₂ and R₃) andcompared by an error amplifier 28 to a reference voltage V_(ref). Thereference voltage V_(ref) is a stable scaled representation of thedesired regulated output voltage V_(out). The error amplifier 28generates an error signal 38 (in this example, a positive voltage signalover some predetermined range) based on the comparison of V_(sample) andV_(ref) and the magnitude of this error signal ultimately controls theoperation of the transistor switch 20, which in turn adjusts the outputvoltage V_(out) via adjustments to the switch's duty cycle. In thismanner, the feedback control loop maintains a stable regulated outputvoltage V_(out).

More specifically, the error signal 38 serves as a control voltage for apulse width modulator 36 which also receives a pulse stream 42 having afrequency f=1/T provided by an oscillator 26. In conventional DC-DCconverters, exemplary frequencies f for the pulse stream 42 include, butare not limited to, a range from approximately 50 kHz to 100 kHz. Thepulse width modulator 36 is configured to use both the pulse stream 42and the error signal 38 to provide an on/off control signal 44 thatcontrols the duty cycle of the transistor switch 20. In essence, a pulseof the pulse stream 42 acts as a “trigger” to cause the pulse widthmodulator to turn the transistor switch 20 on, and the error signal 38determines how long the transistor switch stays on (i.e., the length ofthe time period t_(on) and hence the duty cycle D).

For example, if the error signal 38 indicates that the sampled outputvoltage V_(sample) is higher than V_(ref) (i.e., the error signal 38 hasa relatively lower value), the pulse width modulator 36 is configured toprovide a control signal 44 with relatively shorter duration “on” pulsesor a lower duty cycle, thereby providing relatively less energy to theinductor while the transistor switch 20 is on. In contrast, if the errorsignal 38 indicates that V_(sample) is lower than V_(ref) (i.e., theerror signal has a relatively higher value), the pulse width modulatoris configured to provide a control signal with relatively longerduration “on” pulses or a higher duty cycle, thereby providingrelatively more energy to the inductor while the transistor switch 20 ison. Accordingly, by modulating the duration of the “on” pulses of thecontrol signal 44 via the error signal 38, the output voltage V_(out) isregulated by the feedback control loop 46 to approximate a desiredoutput voltage represented by V_(ref).

Other types of conventional DC-DC converters in addition to the buckconverter discussed above in connection with FIG. 1 include, forexample, a step-up or “boost” converter which provides a regulated DCoutput voltage that is higher than the input voltage, an inverting or“buck-boost” converter that may be configured to provide a regulated DCoutput voltage that is either lower or higher than the input voltage andhas a polarity opposite to that of the input voltage, and a “CUK”converter that is based on capacitive energy transfer principals. Likethe buck converter, in each of these other types of converters the dutycycle D of the transistor switch determines the ratio of the outputvoltage V_(out) to the input voltage V_(in).

FIG. 4 illustrates a conventional boost converter 52 and FIG. 5illustrates a conventional buck-boost converter or inverting regulator54. Both of these converters may be analyzed similarly to the buckconverter of FIG. 1 to determine how the duty cycle D affects the ratioV_(out)/V_(in). FIG. 6 illustrates an example of a “CUK” converter 56,which employs capacitive rather than primarily inductive energy transferto a load based on current balance in a capacitor. The circuit of FIG. 6is derived from a duality principle based on the buck-boost converter ofFIG. 5 (i.e., the relationship between the duty cycle D and the ratioV_(out)/V_(in) in the CUK converter is identical to that of thebuck-boost converter). One noteworthy characteristic of the CUKconverter is that the input and output inductors L₁ and L₂ shown in FIG.6 create a substantially smooth current at both the input and the outputof the converter, while the buck, boost, and buck-boost converters havea pulsed input current (e.g., see FIG. 2, second diagram from top).

For all of the converters shown in FIGS. 4-6, the details of the voltageregulation feedback control loop have been omitted for simplicity;however, it should be appreciated that like the buck converter shown inFIG. 1, each of the converters shown in FIGS. 4-6 would include afeedback control loop to provide output voltage regulation, as discussedabove in connection with FIG. 1.

In some conventional DC-DC converter configurations, an input currentsensing and limiting technique also may be employed to facilitateimproved operation of the converter, especially in continuous mode. Suchconverters commonly are referred to as “current-mode” regulators. One ofthe issues addressed by current-mode regulators is that of potentiallyunpredictable energy build-up in the inductor during successiveswitching cycles.

For example, with reference again to FIG. 3, since the inductor currentI_(L) remains above zero in continuous mode, the energy stored in theinductor's magnetic field at any given time may depend not only onenergy stored during the most recent switching cycle, but also onresidual energy that was stored during one or more previous switchingcycles. This situation generally results in a somewhat unpredictableamount of energy being transferred via the inductor (or other energytransfer element) in any given switching cycle. Averaged over time,however, the smoothing function of the output capacitor 34 in thecircuits discussed above, together with the voltage regulation functionprovided by the feedback control loop, facilitate a substantiallycontrolled delivery of power to the load based on the regulated outputvoltage V_(out).

The feedback control loop in the circuits discussed above, however,generally has a limited response time, and there may be some changes ininput conditions (e.g., V_(in)) and/or output power requirements of theDC-DC converter that could compromise the stability of the feedbackcontrol loop. In view of the foregoing, current-mode regulatorsgenerally are configured to limit the peak current I_(P) through theinductor when the transistor switch is on (e.g., refer to FIG. 3). Thisinput current-limiting feature also helps to prevent excessive inductorcurrents in the event of significant changes in input conditions and/orsignificant changes in load requirements which call for (via the voltageregulation feedback control loop) a duty cycle that results in aninductor current which may adversely affect the stability of thefeedback loop, and/or be potentially damaging to the circuit.

FIG. 7 is a circuit diagram illustrating an example of a current-moderegulator 58 based on the buck-boost converter configuration shown inFIG. 5. In the diagram of FIG. 7, additional details of the voltageregulation feedback control loop 46 are shown to facilitate thediscussion of input current limiting. It should be appreciated that theconcepts discussed below in connection with the input current sensingand limiting features of the circuit of FIG. 7 may be similarly appliedto the other types of conventional DC-DC converters discussed herein.

The feedback control loop 46 which controls the operation of thetransistor switch 20 in the current-mode circuit of FIG. 7 differs fromthat shown in FIG. 1 in that the circuit of FIG. 7 additionally includesan input current sensing device 60 (i.e., the resistor R_(sense)) and acomparator 62. Also, the pulse width modulator 36 used in the feedbackcontrol loop in the example of FIG. 7 is a D-type flip-flop with set andreset control. As shown in FIG. 7, the flip-flop pulse width modulatoris arranged such that its “D” and “Clk” inputs are tied to ground, theoscillator 26 provides the pulse stream 42 to the “Set” input of theflip-flop (low activated, S), the comparator 62 provides a signal 64 tothe “Reset” input of the flip-flop (low activated, R), and theflip-flop's “Q” output provides the pulse width modulated control signal44.

In this arrangement, when the transistor switch 20 is off or open, thereis no current through the resistor R_(sense); hence, the voltage at theinverting input of the comparator 62 is zero. Recall also from FIG. 1that the error signal 38 in this example is a positive voltage over somepredetermined range that indicates the difference between the sampledoutput voltage V_(sample) and V_(ref). Thus, when the transistor switch20 is open, the signal 64 output by the comparator is a logic highsignal (i.e., the reset input R of the flip-flop is not activated).

With the flip-flop in this state, the next low-going pulse of the pulsestream 42 activates the flip-flop's set input S, thereby driving theflip-flop's Q output to a logic high state and turning the transistorswitch 20 on. As discussed above, this causes the inductor current I_(L)to increase, and with the switch closed this inductor current(I_(L(on))) also passes through the resistor R_(sense). therebydeveloping a voltage V_(sense) across this resistor. When the voltageV_(sense) exceeds the error signal 38, the signal 64 output by thecomparator 62 switches to a logic low state, thereby activating theflip-flop's reset input R and causing the Q output to go low (and thetransistor switch 20 to turn off). When the transistor is turned off,the voltage V_(sense) returns to zero and the signal 64 returns to alogic high state, thereby deactivating the flip flop's reset input. Atthis point, the next occurrence of a low-going pulse of the pulse stream42 activates the flip flop's set input S to start the cycle over again.

Accordingly, in the circuit of FIG. 7, the relationship betweenV_(sense) and the error signal 38 determines the duty cycle D of thetransistor switch 20; specifically, if the voltage V_(sense) exceeds theerror signal 38, the switch opens. Based on the foregoing, the peakcurrent I_(P) through the inductor (see FIG. 3) may be predetermined byselecting an appropriate value for the resistor R_(sense), given theexpected range of the error signal 38. The action of the comparator 62ensures that even in situations where changes in load requirements causeV_(sample) to be substantially below V_(ref) (resulting in a relativelyhigher magnitude error signal and a potentially greater duty cycle), thecurrent I_(L(on)) through the inductor ultimately may limit the dutycycle so that the inductor current does not exceed a predetermined peakcurrent. Again, this type of “current-mode” operation generally enhancesthe stability of the feedback control loop and reduces potentiallydamaging conditions in the DC-DC converter circuitry.

For many electronics applications, power supplies may be configured toprovide a regulated DC output voltage from an input AC line voltage(e.g., 120 V_(rms), 60 Hz). For example, conventional “linear” powersupplies typically employ a substantial (relatively large and heavy) 60Hz power transformer to reduce the input AC line voltage atapproximately 120 V_(rms). to some lower (and less dangerous) secondaryAC voltage. This lower secondary AC voltage then is rectified (e.g., bya diode bridge rectifier) and filtered to provide an unregulated DCvoltage. Often, a linear regulator is then employed to provide apredetermined regulated DC voltage output based on the unregulated DCvoltage.

By utilizing the unique switching action of a DC-DC converter, however,it is possible to design a power supply that does not require thesubstantial 60 Hz power transformer at the input stage typical of linearpower supplies, thereby in many cases significantly reducing the sizeand weight and increasing the efficiency of the power supply. Forexample, power supplies based on linear regulators generally have powerconversion efficiencies on the order of approximately 50% or lower,whereas power supplies based on switching regulators have efficiencieson the order of approximately 80% or higher.

In some power supplies based on switching regulators, an unregulated DCvoltage may be provided as an input to a DC-DC converter directly from arectified and filtered AC line voltage. Such an arrangement implies thatthere is no protective isolation between the AC line voltage and the DCinput voltage to the DC-DC converter. Also, the unregulated DC inputvoltage to the converter may be approximately 160 Volts DC (based on arectified 120 V_(rms) line voltage) or higher (up to approximately 400Volts if power factor correction is employed, as discussed below inconnection with FIGS. 9A and 9B), which is potentially quite dangerous.In view of the foregoing, DC-DC converters for such power supplyarrangements typically are configured with isolation features to addressthese issues so as to generally comport with appropriate safetystandards.

FIG. 8 is a circuit diagram illustrating an example of such a powersupply 66 incorporating a DC-DC converter or switching regulator. Asdiscussed above, the power supply 66 receives as an input an AC linevoltage 67 which is rectified by a bridge rectifier 68 and filtered by acapacitor 35 (C_(filter)) to provide an unregulated DC voltage as aninput V_(in) to the DC-DC converter portion 69. The DC-DC converterportion 69 is based on the inverting regulator (buck-boost) arrangementshown in FIG. 5; however, in FIG. 8, the energy-storage inductor hasbeen replaced with a high frequency transformer 72 to provide isolationbetween the unregulated high DC input voltage V_(in) and the DC outputvoltage V_(out). Such a DC-DC converter arrangement incorporating atransformer rather than an inductor commonly is referred to as a“flyback” converter.

In the circuit of FIG. 8, the “secondary side” of the converter portion69 (i.e., the diode D1 and the capacitor C) is arranged such that theconverter provides a DC output voltage having the same polarity as theDC input voltage (note the opposing “dot” convention for the windings ofthe transformer 72, indicating that the primary transformer winding iswound in the opposite direction of the secondary transformer winding).The DC-DC converter portion 69 also includes an isolation element 70(e.g., a second high-frequency transformer or optoisolator) in thevoltage regulation feedback control loop to link the error signal fromthe error amplifier 28 to the modulator 36 (the error signal input toand output from the isolation element 70 is indicated by the referencenumerals 38A and 38B).

In view of the various isolation features in the circuit of FIG. 8,although not shown explicitly in the figure, it should be appreciatedthat power for the oscillator/modulation circuitry generally may bederived from the primary side unregulated higher DC input voltageV_(in), whereas power for other elements of the feedback control loop(e.g., the reference voltage V_(ref), the error amplifier 28) may bederived from the secondary side regulated DC output voltage V_(out).Alternatively, as mentioned above, power for the components of thefeedback loop may in some cases be provided by an independent powersource.

FIG. 9 is a circuit diagram illustrating yet another example of a powersupply 74 incorporating a different type of DC-DC converter thatprovides input-output isolation. The DC-DC converter portion 75 of thepower supply 74 shown in FIG. 9 commonly is referred to as a “forward”converter, and is based on the step-down or “buck” converter discussedabove in connection with FIG. 1. In particular, the converter portion 75again includes a transformer 72 like the circuit of FIG. 8, but alsoincludes a secondary side inductor 76 and additional diode 77 (D2) notpresent in the flyback converter shown in FIG. 8 (note that the diodeD2, the inductor 76 and the capacitor 34 resemble the buck converterconfiguration illustrated in FIG. 1). In the forward converter, thediode D1 ensures that only positive transformer secondary voltages areapplied to the output circuit while diode D2 provides a circulating pathfor current in the inductor 76 when the transformer voltage is zero ornegative.

Other well-known modifications may be made to the forward convertershown in FIG. 9 to facilitate “full-wave” conduction in the secondarycircuit. Also, while not indicated explicitly in the figures, both ofthe exemplary power supplies shown in FIGS. 8 and 9 may be modified toincorporate current-mode features as discussed above in connection withFIG. 7 (i.e., to limit the current in the primary winding of thetransformer 72).

Although the circuits of FIGS. 8 and 9 include two isolation elements(e.g., the transformer 72 and the isolation element 70) as opposed to asingle 60 Hz power transformer as in a linear power supply, thedifference in size and weight between a switching power supply and alinear power supply is significant; the size of a transformer generallyis determined by the core size, which decreases dramatically at thehigher switching frequencies of the switching supply (on the order of 50kHz to 100 kHz) as opposed to the line frequency (60 Hz). Also,switching supplies operate at significantly cooler temperatures as aresult of their increased efficiency and lower heat dissipation ascompared to linear supplies. As a result, switching power supplies arecommonly utilized for many consumer electronics applications (e.g.,computers and other electronic instruments and devices).

Examples of commercial switching power supply packages include smallmodular units, wall plug-ins, open-framed units, or enclosed units.Small modular units generally are used in moderately low-powerapplications from approximately 10 to 25 Watts. Wall plug-in suppliestypically provide even less power, while open-framed or enclosed unitsmay be configured to supply substantially more power (e.g., 500 to 1000Watts or more). Examples of common regulated DC output voltages fromcommercially available switching power supplies include +5V, ±12V, ±15V,and 24V.

Because of the switching nature of DC-DC converters, these apparatusgenerally draw current from a power source in short pulses (e.g., seeI_(in) FIG. 2). This condition may have some generally undesirableeffects when DC-DC converters draw power from an AC power source (e.g.,as in the arrangements of FIGS. 8 and 9).

In particular, for maximum power efficiency from an AC power source, theinput current ultimately drawn from the AC line voltage ideally shouldhave a sinusoidal wave shape and be in phase with the AC line voltage.This situation commonly is referred to as “unity power factor,” andgenerally results with purely resistive loads. The switching nature ofthe DC-DC converter and resulting pulsed current draw (i.e.,significantly non-sinusoidal current draw), however, causes theseapparatus to have less than unity power factor, and thus less thanoptimum power efficiency (notwithstanding their improved efficiency overconventional linear supplies).

More specifically, the “apparent power” drawn from an AC power source bya load that is not a purely resistive load (i.e., a switching powersupply drawing power from an AC line voltage) is given by multiplyingthe RMS voltage applied to the load and the RMS current drawn by theload. This apparent power reflects how much power the device appears tobe drawings from the source. However, the actual power drawn by the loadmay be less than the apparent power, and the ratio of actual to apparentpower is referred to as the load's “power factor” (the power factortraditionally is given by the cosine of the phase angle between appliedvoltage and current drawn). For example, a device that draws an apparentpower of 100 Volt-amps and has a 0.5 power factor actually consumes 50Watts of power, not 100 Watts; stated differently, in this example, adevice with a 0.5 power factor appears to require twice as much powerfrom the source than it actually consumes.

As mentioned above, conventional DC-DC converters characteristicallyhave significantly less than unity power factor due to their switchingnature and pulsed current draw. Additionally, if the DC-DC converterwere to draw current from the AC line voltage with only interveningrectification and filtering, the pulsed non-sinusoidal current drawn bythe DC-DC converter would place unusual stresses and introduce generallyundesirable noise and harmonics on the AC line voltage (which mayadversely affect the operation of other devices drawing power from theAC line voltage).

In view of the foregoing, some conventional switching power supplies areequipped with, or used in conjunction with, power factor correctionapparatus that are configured to address the issues noted above andprovide for a more efficient provision of power from an AC power source.In particular, such power factor correction apparatus generally operateto “smooth out” the pulsed current drawn by a DC-DC converter, therebylowering its RMS value, reducing undesirable harmonics, improving thepower factor, and reducing the chances of an AC mains circuit breakertripping due to peak currents.

In some conventional arrangements, a power factor correction apparatusis itself a type of switched power converter device, similar inconstruction to the various DC-DC converters discussed above, anddisposed for example between an AC bridge rectifier and a DC-DCconverter that ultimately provides power to a load. This type of powerfactor correction apparatus acts to precisely control its input currenton an instantaneous basis so as to substantially match the waveform andphase of its input voltage (i.e., a rectified AC line voltage). Inparticular, the power factor correction apparatus may be configured tomonitor a rectified AC line voltage and utilize switching cycles to varythe amplitude of the input current waveform to bring it closer intophase with the rectified line voltage.

FIG. 9A is a circuit diagram generally illustrating such a conventionalpower factor correction apparatus 520. As discussed above, the powerfactor correction apparatus is configured so as to receive as an input65 the rectified AC line voltage V_(AC) from the bridge rectifier 68,and provide as an output the voltage V_(in) that is then applied to aDC-DC converter portion of a power supply (e.g., with reference to FIGS.8 and 9, the power factor correction apparatus 520 would be disposedbetween the bridge rectifier 68 and the DC-DC converter portions 69 and75, respectively). As can be seen in FIG. 9A, a common example of apower factor correction apparatus 520 is based on a boost convertertopology (see FIG. 4 for an example of a DC-DC converter boostconfiguration) that includes an inductor L_(PFC), a switch SW_(PFC), adiode D_(PFC), and the filter capacitor 35 across which the voltageV_(in) is generated.

The power factor correction apparatus 520 of FIG. 9A also includes apower factor correction (PFC) controller 522 that monitors the rectifiedvoltage V_(AC), the generated voltage V_(in) provided as an output tothe DC-DC converter portion, and a signal 71 (I_(samp)) representing thecurrent I_(AC) drawn by the apparatus 520. As illustrated in FIG. 9A,the signal I_(samp) may be derived from a current sensing element 526(e.g., a voltage across a resistor) in the path of the current I_(AC)drawn by the apparatus. Based on these monitored signals, the PFCcontroller 522 is configured to output a control signal 73 to controlthe switch 75 (SW_(PFC)) such that the current I_(AC) has a waveformthat substantially matches, and is in phase with, the rectified voltageV_(AC).

FIG. 9B is a diagram that conceptually illustrates the functionality ofthe PFC controller 522. Recall that, generally speaking, the function ofthe power factor correction apparatus 520 as a whole is to make itselflook essentially like a resistance to an AC power source; in thismanner, the voltage provided by the power source and the current drawnfrom the power source by the “simulated resistance” of the power factorcorrection apparatus have essentially the same waveform and are inphase, resulting in substantially unity power factor. Accordingly, aquantity R_(PFC) may be considered as representing a conceptualsimulated resistance of the power factor correction apparatus, suchthat, according to Ohm's law,V_(AC)=I_(AC) R_(PFC)orG_(PFC) V_(AC)=I_(AC),where G_(PFC)=1/R_(PFC) and represents an effective conductance of thepower factor correction apparatus 520.

With the foregoing in mind, the PFC controller 522 shown in FIG. 9Bimplements a control strategy based on two feedback loops, namely avoltage feedback loop and a current feedback loop. These feedback loopswork together to manipulate the instantaneous current I_(AC) drawn bythe power factor correction apparatus based on a derived effectiveconductance G_(PFC) for the power factor correction apparatus. To thisend, a voltage feedback loop 524 is implemented by comparing the voltageV_(in) (provided as an output across the filter capacitor 35) to areference voltage V_(refPFC) representing a desired regulated value forthe voltage V_(in). The comparison of these values generates an errorvoltage signal V_(e) which is applied to an integrator/low pass filterhaving a cutoff frequency of approximately 10-20 Hz. This integrator/lowpass filter imposes a relatively slow response time for the overallpower factor control loop, which facilitates a higher power factor;namely, because the error voltage signal V_(e) changes slowly comparedto the line frequency (which is 50 or 60 Hz), adjustments to I_(AC) dueto changes in the voltage V_(in) (e.g., caused by sudden and/orsignificant load demands) occur over multiple cycles of the line voltagerather than abruptly during any given cycle.

In the controller shown in FIG. 9B, a DC component of the slowly varyingoutput of the integrator/low pass filter essentially represents theeffective conductance G_(PFC) of the power factor correction apparatus;hence, the output of the voltage feedback loop 524 provides a signalrepresenting the effective conductance G_(PFC). Accordingly, based onthe relationship given above, the PFC controller 522 is configured tomultiply this effective conductance by the monitored rectified linevoltage V_(AC) to generate a reference current signal I*_(AC)representing the desired current to be drawn from the line voltage,based on the simulated resistive load of the apparatus 520. This signalI*_(AC) thus provides a reference or “set-point” input to the currentcontrol loop 528.

In particular, as shown in FIG. 9B, in the current control loop 528, thesignal I*_(AC) is compared to the signal I_(samp) which represents theactual current I_(AC) being drawn by the apparatus 520. The comparisonof these values generates a current error signal I_(e) that serves as acontrol signal for a pulse width modulated (PWM) switch controller(e.g., similar to that discussed above in connection with FIG. 7). ThePWM switch controller in turn outputs a signal 73 to control the switchSW_(PFC) so as to manipulate the actual current I_(AC) being drawn(refer again to FIG. 9A). Exemplary frequencies commonly used for thecontrol signal 73 output by the PWM switch controller (and hence for theswitch SW_(PFC)) are on the order of approximately 100 kHz. With theforegoing in mind, it should be appreciated that it is the resultingaverage value of a rapidly varying I_(AC) that resembles a sinusoidalwaveform, with an approximately 100 kHz ripple resulting from theswitching operations. Generally, the current feedback loop and theswitch control elements have to have enough bandwidth to follow a fullwave rectified waveform, and hence a bandwidth of at least a few kHz issufficient.

It should be appreciated that the foregoing discussion in connectionwith FIGS. 9A and 9B is primarily conceptual in nature to provide ageneral understanding of the power factor correction functionality.Presently, integrated circuit power factor correction controllers thatmay be employed as the PFC controller 522 shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B areavailable from various manufacturers (e.g., the Fairchild SemiconductorML4821 PFC controller, the Linear Technology LT1248 or LT1249 PFCcontrollers, the ST Microelectronics L6561 PFC controller, etc.). Suchcontrollers generally may be configured to operate the power factorcorrection apparatus 520 in either continuous or discontinuous switchingmodes (or around a boundary between continuous and discontinuous modes).Circuit particulars and further details of the theory of operation ofsuch conventional integrated circuit power factor correction controllersare discussed, for example, in Fairchild Semiconductor Application Note42030, “Theory and Application of the ML4821 Average Current Mode PFCController,” August 1997, revised Oct. 25, 2000 (available athttp://www.fairchildsemi.com), Linear Technology datasheets for theLT1248/LT1249 controllers (available at http://www.linear-tech.com), andST Microlectronics Application Note AN966, “L6561 Enhanced TransitionMode Power Factor Corrector,” by Claudio Adragna, March 2003 (availableat http://www.st.com), each of which documents is hereby incorporatedherein by reference.

Thus, in the conventional power factor correction schemes outlined inconnection with FIGS. 9A and 9B, the power factor correction apparatus520 provides as an output the regulated voltage V_(in) across thecapacitor 35, from which current may be drawn as needed by a loadcoupled to V_(in) (e.g., by a subsequent DC-DC converter portion of apower supply). For sudden and/or excessive changes in load powerrequirements, the instantaneous value of the voltage V_(in) may changedramatically; for example, in instances of sudden high load powerrequirements, energy reserves in the capacitor are drawn upon and V_(in)may suddenly fall below the reference V_(refPFC). As a result, thevoltage feedback loop 524, with a relatively slow response time,attempts to adjust V_(in) by causing the power factor correctionapparatus to draw more current from the line voltage. Due to therelatively slow response time, though, this action may in turn cause anover-voltage condition for V_(in), particularly if the sudden/excessivedemand from the load no longer exists by the time an adjustment toV_(in) is made. The apparatus then tries to compensate for theover-voltage condition, again subject to the slow response time of thevoltage feedback loop 524, leading to some degree of potentialinstability. Similar sudden changes (either under- or over-voltageconditions) to V_(in) may result from sudden/excessive perturbations onthe line voltage 67, to which the apparatus 520 attempts to respond inthe manner described above. From the foregoing, it should be appreciatedthat the slow response time that on the one hand facilitates powerfactor correction at the same time may result in a less than optimuminput/output transient response capability. Accordingly, the voltagefeedback loop response time/bandwidth in conventional power factorcorrection apparatus generally is selected to provide a practicalbalance between reasonable (but less than optimal) power factorcorrection and reasonable (but less than optimal) transient response.

It should be appreciated that in some switching power supplyapplications, a power factor correction apparatus may not be required oreven significantly effective. For example, for small loads that drawrelatively low power from a power source, the power factor of theswitching power supply conventionally is considered to be not asimportant as in higher power applications; presumably, the power drawnby a small load comprises a relatively insignificant portion of theoverall power available on a particular AC power circuit. In contrast,power factor correction may be important for larger loads consumingrelatively higher power, in which the input current to the switchingpower supply may approach the maximum available from the AC powersource.

SUMMARY

Various embodiments of the present disclosure are directed generally tomethods and apparatus for providing and controlling power to at leastsome types of loads, wherein overall power efficiency typically isimproved and functional redundancy of components is significantlyreduced as compared to conventional arrangements. In different aspects,implementations of methods and apparatus according to variousembodiments of the disclosure generally involve significantlystreamlined circuits having fewer components, higher overall powerefficiencies, and smaller space requirements.

In some embodiments, a controlled predetermined power is provided to aload without requiring any feedback information from the load (i.e.,without monitoring load voltage and/or current). Furthermore, in oneaspect of these embodiments, no regulation of load voltage and/or loadcurrent is required. In another aspect of such embodiments in whichfeedback is not required, isolation components typically employedbetween a DC output voltage of a DC-DC converter (e.g., the load supplyvoltage) and a source of power derived from an AC line voltage (e.g., ahigh DC voltage input to the DC-DC converter) in some cases may beeliminated, thereby reducing the number of required circuit components.In yet another aspect, eliminating the need for a feedback loopgenerally increases circuit speed and avoids potentially challengingissues relating to feedback circuit stability.

Based on the foregoing concepts, one embodiment of the presentdisclosure is directed to a “feed-forward” driver for an LED-based lightsource. Such a feed-forward driver (also referred to herein as a “powercontrol apparatus”) utilizes information known in advance regarding adesired power to be provided to the light source, and combines thefunctionality of a DC-DC converter and a light source controller tocontrol the intensity of radiation generated by the light source basedon modulating the average power delivered to the light source in a giventime period, without monitoring or regulating the voltage or currentprovided to the light source. In one aspect of this embodiment, thefeed-forward driver is configured to store energy to, and release energyfrom, one or more energy transfer elements using a “discontinuous mode”switching operation. This type of switching operation facilitates thetransfer of a predictable quantum of energy per switching cycle, andhence a predictable controlled power delivery to the light source. Thediscontinuous mode switching operation employed in this embodiment maybe similarly used in various feed-forward implementations for providingpower to loads other than LED-based light sources (e.g., motors,actuators, relays, heating elements, etc.)

In another embodiment, the concept of “feeding-forward” knowninformation about desired load conditions is utilized to facilitatepower factor correction. For example, in one embodiment, a modifiedpower factor correction apparatus according to the present disclosure isbased on a DC-DC converter switching architecture (e.g., a boostconverter), wherein control of the apparatus' switching operation isbased on a predetermined desired load power and, more particularly, atotal anticipated power draw from an AC power source. By knowing inadvance the desired load power and determining the total anticipatedpower draw, the overall control loop response of the power factorcorrection apparatus may be significantly improved, particularly insituations in which the load power traverses a wide range in a shorttime period (e.g., load full off to load full on, or vice versa). Hence,a more stable power factor correction may be realized, in which smallercircuit components may be employed based on more predictableexpectations for signal values, thereby reducing the cost and/or size ofthe implemented circuits.

In another embodiment, a power factor correction apparatus as describedimmediately above may be used in combination with one or morefeed-forward drivers to efficiently provide power from an AC powersource to one or more of a variety of loads, including LED-based lightsources.

In yet another embodiment, multiple apparatus each including one or moreloads, one or more power control apparatus (i.e., feed-forward drivers),and an optional conventional or modified power factor control apparatus,may be coupled to a distributed source of power (e.g., a distributed DCvoltage or AC line voltage) in a network configuration. In one aspect ofthis embodiment, the multiple apparatus coupled to the distributedvoltage may be configured as addressable devices so as to facilitateappropriate communication of load control information throughout thenetwork. In another aspect of this embodiment, the load controlinformation may be formatted for communication throughout the network inany of a variety of conventional communication protocols including, butnot limited to, a DMX protocol.

In sum, exemplary embodiments pursuant to the present disclosureinclude, but are not limited to, the following:

One embodiment is directed to an apparatus, comprising at least onefirst LED, and at least one first power controller to provide a firstcontrollably variable predetermined power to the at least one first LEDwithout requiring any feedback information associated with the at leastone first LED.

Another embodiment is directed to a method, comprising an act ofproviding a first controllably variable predetermined power to at leastone first LED without requiring any feedback information associated withthe at least one first LED.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus, comprising at least onefirst LED, and at least one first power controller configured to providea first controllably variable predetermined power to the at least onefirst LED. In various aspects of this embodiment, the at least one firstpower controller includes a first single switch, a DC supply voltageprovides a power source to the apparatus, the at least one first powercontroller is configured to apply a first converted DC voltage acrossthe at least one first LED, and the at least one first power controlleris further configured to control the first single switch to facilitate afirst conversion of the DC supply voltage to the first converted DCvoltage and concurrently provide the first controllably variablepredetermined power to the at least one first LED.

Another embodiment is directed to a method, comprising an act ofproviding a first controllably variable predetermined power to at leastone first LED, wherein a DC supply voltage provides a power source,wherein a first converted DC voltage is applied across the at least onefirst LED. The act of providing a first controllably variablepredetermined power further includes an act of controlling a firstsingle switch to facilitate a first conversion of the DC supply voltageto the first converted DC voltage and concurrently provide the firstcontrollably variable predetermined power to the at least one first LED.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus, comprising at least onefirst LED configured to generate first radiation having a firstspectrum, and a first feed-forward driver coupled to the at least onefirst LED and configured to controllably vary a first intensity of thefirst radiation without monitoring or regulating a first voltage or afirst current provided to the at least one first LED.

Another embodiment is directed to a method, comprising acts ofgenerating first radiation having a first spectrum from at least onefirst LED, and controllably varying a first intensity of the firstradiation without monitoring or regulating a first voltage or a firstcurrent provided to the at least one first LED.

Another embodiment is directed to a network, comprising a distributed DCvoltage to provide a power source to the network, and at least first andsecond apparatus coupled to the distributed DC voltage. Each of thefirst and second apparatus includes at least one first LED configured togenerate first radiation having a first spectrum, and a firstfeed-forward driver coupled to the at least one first LED and configuredto control a first intensity of the first radiation without monitoringor regulating a first voltage or a first current provided to the atleast one first LED. The network further comprises at least one networkcontroller, coupled to each of the first and second apparatus, togenerate at least one radiation control signal that includes informationrepresenting the first intensity of the first radiation generated byeach of the first and second apparatus.

Another embodiment is directed to a method, comprising acts of:distributing a DC supply voltage to at least first and second apparatusto provide a power source; in each of the first and second apparatus,generating first radiation having a first spectrum from at least onefirst LED; transmitting to both the first and second apparatus at leastone radiation control signal that includes information representing afirst intensity of the first radiation generated by each of the firstand second apparatus; and in each of the first and second apparatus,controlling the first intensity of the first radiation, in response tothe at least one radiation control signal, without monitoring orregulating a first voltage or a first current provided to the at leastone first LED.

Another embodiment is directed to a network, comprising a distributed ACline voltage and at least first and second apparatus coupled to thedistributed AC line voltage. Each of the first and second apparatusincludes at least one first LED configured to generate first radiationhaving a first spectrum, and a first feed-forward driver coupled to theat least one first LED and configured to control a first intensity ofthe first radiation without monitoring or regulating a first voltage ora first current provided to the at least one first LED. The networkfurther comprises at least one network controller, coupled to each ofthe first and second apparatus, to generate at least one radiationcontrol signal that includes information representing the firstintensity of the first radiation generated by each of the first andsecond apparatus.

Another embodiment is directed to a method, comprising acts of:distributing an AC line voltage to at least first and second apparatus;in each of the first and second apparatus, generating first radiationhaving a first spectrum from at least one first LED; transmitting toboth the first and second apparatus at least one radiation controlsignal that includes information representing a first intensity of thefirst radiation generated by each of the first and second apparatus; andin each of the first and second apparatus, controlling the firstintensity of the first radiation, in response to the at least oneradiation control signal, without monitoring or regulating a firstvoltage or a first current provided to the at least one first LED.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus, comprising at least oneenergy transfer element to store input energy derived from a powersource and to provide output energy to a load, at least one switchcoupled to the at least one energy transfer element to control at leastthe input energy stored to the at least one energy transfer element, andat least one switch controller configured to receive at least onecontrol signal representing a desired load power and control the atleast one switch in response to the at least one control signal, whereinthe at least one switch controller does not receive any feedbackinformation relating to the load to control the at least one switch.

Another embodiment is directed to a method, comprising acts of: storinginput energy derived from a power source to at least one energy transferelement; providing output energy from the at least one energy transferelement to a load; controlling at least the input energy stored to theat least one energy transfer element via at least one switch coupled tothe at least one energy transfer element; receiving at least one controlsignal representing a desired load power; and controlling the at leastone switch in response to the at least one control signal withoutreceiving any feedback information relating to the load.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus, comprising at least oneenergy transfer element to store input energy derived from a powersource and to provide output energy to a load, at least one switchcoupled to the at least one energy transfer element to control at leastthe input energy stored to the at least one energy transfer element, andat least one switch controller configured to control the at least oneswitch, wherein the at least one switch controller is configured tocontrol at least one of a frequency and a duty cycle of multipleswitching operations of the at least one switch so as to provide acontrollably variable predetermined power to the load.

Another embodiment is directed to a method, comprising acts of: storinginput energy derived from a power source to at least one energy transferelement; providing output energy from the at least one energy transferelement to a load; controlling at least the input energy stored to theat least one energy transfer element via at least one switch coupled tothe at least one energy transfer element; and controlling at least oneof a frequency and a duty cycle of multiple switching operations of theat least one switch so as to provide a controllably predeterminedvariable power to the load.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus, comprising at least oneenergy transfer element to store input energy derived from a powersource and to provide output energy to a load, at least one switchcoupled to the at least one energy transfer element to control at leastthe input energy stored to the at least one energy transfer element, andat least one switch controller configured to control the at least oneswitch, wherein the at least one switch controller is configured tocontrol the at least one switch based on at least one of a voltageoutput by the power source and a current drawn from the power source,and at least one control signal representing a desired load power, so asto provide a controllably variable predetermined power to the load.

Another embodiment is directed to a method, comprising acts of: storinginput energy derived from a power source to at least one energy transferelement; providing output energy from the at least one energy transferelement to a load; controlling at least the input energy stored to theat least one energy transfer element via at least one switch coupled tothe at least one energy transfer element; and controlling the at leastone switch based on at least one of a voltage output by the power sourceand a current drawn from the power source, and at least one controlsignal representing a desired load power, so as to provide acontrollably predetermined variable power to the load.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus, comprising at least oneenergy transfer element to store input energy derived from a powersource and to provide output energy to a load, at least one switchcoupled to the at least one energy transfer element to control at leastthe input energy stored to the at least one energy transfer element, andat least one switch controller configured to control the at least oneswitch to perform multiple switching operations in at least one timeperiod, each switching operation transferring a predetermined quantum ofthe input energy to the at least one energy transfer element. The atleast one switch controller is configured to control the multipleswitching operations so as to vary at least one of the predeterminedquantum of the input energy for at least two switching operations in theat least one time period and a number of the multiple switchingoperations in the at least one time period, so as to provide acontrollably variable power to the load.

Another embodiment is directed to a method, comprising acts of: storinginput energy derived from a power source to at least one energy transferelement; providing output energy from the at least one energy transferelement to a load; controlling at least the input energy stored to theat least one energy transfer element via at least one switch coupled tothe at least one energy transfer element; and controlling the at leastone switch to perform multiple switching operations in at least one timeperiod, each switching operation transferring a controllably variablepredetermined quantum of the input energy to the at least one energytransfer element. The act of controlling the at least one switch furthercomprises an act of controlling the multiple switching operations so asto vary at least one of the predetermined quantum of the input energyfor at least two switching operations in the at least one time periodand a number of the multiple switching operations in the at least onetime period, so as to provide a controllably variable power to the load.

Another embodiment is directed to a power factor correction apparatus,comprising at least one first switch, and at least one switch controllerto control the at least one first switch based at least on apredetermined desired power to be provided to a load coupled to thepower factor correction apparatus.

Another embodiment is directed to a power factor correction method,comprising an act of controlling a current drawn from an AC power sourcebased at least on a predetermined desired power to be provided to a loadfrom the AC power source, so as to improve a power factor associatedwith the provision of actual power to the load.

Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus, comprising at least onepower factor correction switch, at least one power control switch, andat least one switch controller to control both the at least one powerfactor correction switch and the at least one power control switch basedat least on a predetermined desired power to be provided to a loadcoupled to the apparatus.

As used herein for purposes of the present disclosure, the term “LED”should be understood to include any electroluminescent diode or othertype of carrier injection/junction-based system that is capable ofgenerating radiation in response to an electric signal. Thus, the termLED includes, but is not limited to, various semiconductor-basedstructures that emit radiation in response to current, light emittingpolymers, electroluminescent strips, and the like.

In particular, the term LED refers to light emitting diodes of all types(including semi-conductor and organic light emitting diodes) that may beconfigured to generate radiation in one or more of the infraredspectrum, ultraviolet spectrum, and various portions of the visiblespectrum (generally including radiation wavelengths from approximately400 nanometers to approximately 700 nanometers). Some examples of LEDsinclude, but are not limited to, various types of infrared LEDs,ultraviolet LEDs, red LEDs, blue LEDs, green LEDs, yellow LEDs, amberLEDs, orange LEDs, and white LEDs (discussed further below). It alsoshould be appreciated that LEDs may be configured to generate radiationhaving various bandwidths for a given spectrum (e.g., narrow bandwidth,broad bandwidth).

For example, one implementation of an LED configured to generateessentially white light (e.g., a white LED) may include a number of dieswhich respectively emit different spectra of electroluminescence that,in combination, mix to form essentially white light. In anotherimplementation, a white light LED may be associated with a phosphormaterial that converts electroluminescence having a first spectrum to adifferent second spectrum. In one example of this implementation,electroluminescence having a relatively short wavelength and narrowbandwidth spectrum “pumps” the phosphor material, which in turn radiateslonger wavelength radiation having a somewhat broader spectrum.

It should also be understood that the term LED does not limit thephysical and/or electrical package type of an LED. For example, asdiscussed above, an LED may refer to a single light emitting devicehaving multiple dies that are configured to respectively emit differentspectra of radiation (e.g., that may or may not be individuallycontrollable). Also, an LED may be associated with a phosphor that isconsidered as an integral part of the LED (e.g., some types of whiteLEDs). In general, the term LED may refer to packaged LEDs, non-packagedLEDs, surface mount LEDs, chip-on-board LEDs, T-package mount LEDs,radial package LEDs, power package LEDs, LEDs including some type ofencasement and/or optical element (e.g., a diffusing lens), etc.

A given light source, including an LED, may be configured to generateelectromagnetic radiation within the visible spectrum, outside thevisible spectrum, or a combination of both. Hence, the terms “light” and“radiation” are used interchangeably herein. The term “spectrum” shouldbe understood to refer to any one or more frequencies (or wavelengths)of radiation produced by one or more light sources. Accordingly, theterm “spectrum” refers to frequencies (or wavelengths) not only in thevisible range, but also frequencies (or wavelengths) in the infrared,ultraviolet, and other areas of the overall electromagnetic spectrum.Also, a given spectrum may have a relatively narrow bandwidth(essentially few frequency or wavelength components) or a relativelywide bandwidth (several frequency or wavelength components havingvarious relative strengths). It should also be appreciated that a givenspectrum may be the result of a mixing of two or more other spectra(e.g., mixing radiation respectively emitted from multiple lightsources).

For purposes of this disclosure, the term “color” is usedinterchangeably with the term “spectrum.” However, the term “color”generally is used to refer primarily to a property of radiation that isperceivable by an observer (although this usage is not intended to limitthe scope of this term). Accordingly, the terms “different colors”implicitly refer to multiple spectra having different wavelengthcomponents and/or bandwidths. It also should be appreciated that theterm “color” may be used in connection with both white and non-whitelight.

In various implementations discussed herein, one or more light sources,including LED-based light sources, may be configured such that theradiation generated by the sources may be directly viewed by an observer(e.g., display), indirectly viewed (e.g., illumination), or used forother applications in which the radiation is not necessarily viewed byan observer (e.g., machine vision).

The term “controller” is used herein to describe various apparatusrelating to the operation of one or more other devices. A controller canbe implemented in numerous ways, such as with dedicated hardwareincluding various analog and/or digital circuitry, by employing one ormore microprocessors or other programmable devices configured to executepredetermined algorithms (e.g., programmed using software or microcode)to perform the various functions discussed herein, or as a combinationof dedicated hardware to perform some functions and programmedmicroprocessors and associated circuitry to perform other functions. Theterm “processor” generally refers to a controller that includes one ormore microprocessors or other programmable devices.

In various implementations, a controller or processor may be associatedwith one or more storage media (generically referred to herein as“memory,” e.g., volatile and non-volatile computer memory such as RAM,PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM, floppy disks, compact disks, optical disks,magnetic tape, etc.). In some implementations, the storage media may beencoded with one or more programs that, when executed on one or moreprocessors/controllers, perform at least some of the functions discussedherein. Various storage media may be fixed within a processor/controlleror may be transportable, such that the one or more programs storedthereon can be loaded into a processor/controller so as to implementvarious aspects of the present disclosure discussed herein. The terms“program” or “computer program” are used herein in a generic sense torefer to any type of computer code (e.g., software or microcode) thatcan be employed to program one or more processors/controllers.

The term “addressable” is used herein to refer to a device (e.g., acontroller or processor that may be associated with one or more loadssuch as a lighting apparatus) that is configured to receive information(e.g., data) intended for multiple devices, including itself, and toselectively respond to particular information intended for it. The term“addressable” often is used in connection with a networked environment(or a “network,” discussed further below), in which multiple devices arecoupled together via some communications medium or media.

In one network implementation, one or more devices coupled to a networkmay serve as a controller for one or more other devices coupled to thenetwork (e.g., in a master/slave relationship). In anotherimplementation, a networked environment may include one or morededicated controllers that are configured to control one or more of thedevices coupled to the network. Generally, multiple devices coupled tothe network each may have access to data that is present on thecommunications medium or media; however, a given device may be“addressable” in that it is configured to selectively exchange data with(i.e., receive data from and/or transmit data to) the network, based,for example, on one or more particular identifiers (e.g., “addresses”)assigned to it.

The term “network” as used herein refers to any interconnection of twoor more devices (including controllers or processors) that facilitatesthe transport of information (e.g. for device control, data storage,data exchange, etc.) between any two or more devices and/or amongmultiple devices coupled to the network. As should be readilyappreciated, various implementations of networks suitable forinterconnecting multiple devices may include any of a variety of networktopologies and employ any of a variety of communication protocols.Additionally, in various networks according to the present disclosure,any one connection between two devices may represent a dedicatedconnection between the two systems, or alternatively a non-dedicatedconnection. In addition to carrying information intended for the twodevices, such a non-dedicated connection may carry information notnecessarily intended for either of the two devices (e.g., an opennetwork connection). Furthermore, it should be readily appreciated thatvarious networks of devices as discussed herein may employ one or morewireless, wire/cable, and/or fiber optic links to facilitate informationtransport throughout the network.

It should be appreciated that all combinations of the foregoing conceptsand additional concepts discussed in greater detail below arecontemplated as being part of the inventive subject matter disclosedherein. In particular, all combinations of claimed subject matterappearing at the end of this disclosure are contemplated as being partof the inventive subject matter disclosed herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram of a conventional step-down or “buck” typeDC-DC converter;

FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating various operating signals associatedwith the DC-DC converter of FIG. 1;

FIG. 3 is a diagram particularly illustrating inductor current vs.applied voltage during two consecutive switching operations in theconverter of FIG. 1;

FIG. 4 is a circuit diagram of a conventional step-up or “boost” typeDC-DC converter;

FIG. 5 is a circuit diagram of a conventional inverting or “buck-boost”type DC-DC converter;

FIG. 6 is a circuit diagram of a conventional “CUK” type DC-DCconverter;

FIG. 7 is a circuit diagram of a buck-boost converter similar to thatshown in FIG. 5, configured for current-mode operation;

FIG. 8 is a circuit diagram of a conventional “flyback” type DC-DCconverter;

FIG. 9 is a circuit diagram of a conventional “forward” type DC-DCconverter;

FIG. 9A is a circuit diagram of a conventional power factor correctionapparatus based on a boost converter topology;

FIG. 9B is a diagram that conceptually illustrates the functionality ofa power factor correction controller of the power factor correctionapparatus shown in FIG. 9A;

FIG. 10 is a diagram schematically showing an exemplary conventionalarrangement of a DC-DC converter coupled to a load that is configured tomodulate power delivered to one or more functional components of theload;

FIG. 11 is a diagram schematically showing another exemplaryconventional arrangement of a DC-DC converter coupled to a load that isconfigured to modulate power delivered to one or more functionalcomponents of the load;

FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating a “feed-forward” power controlapparatus based at least in part on a switching power supplyconfiguration, according to one embodiment of the disclosure;

FIG. 13 is a diagram showing some additional details of the powercontrol apparatus of FIG. 12, according to one embodiment of thedisclosure;

FIG. 14 is an exemplary timing diagram for the apparatus of FIGS. 12 and13, according to one embodiment of the disclosure;

FIG. 15 is a circuit diagram illustrating a portion of the power controlapparatus of FIGS. 12 and 13 according to one embodiment of thedisclosure, in which the apparatus is controlled based in part onmonitoring an inductor current drawn from a source of power andadjusting a duty cycle of a switching operation;

FIG. 16 is a circuit diagram illustrating a portion of the power controlapparatus of FIGS. 12 and 13 according to another embodiment of thedisclosure, in which the apparatus is controlled based in part onmonitoring an input voltage to the apparatus and adjusting a duty cycleof a switching operation;

FIG. 17 is a circuit diagram illustrating a portion of a switchcontroller of the power control apparatus of FIGS. 12 and 13 accordingto another embodiment of the disclosure, in which the apparatus iscontrolled based on adjusting an effective frequency of a switchingoperation;

FIG. 18 is a diagram illustrating a power control apparatus according toanother embodiment of the disclosure, in which both the duty cycle andeffective switching frequency of a switching operation may be controlledto control power to a load;

FIG. 19 is a diagram illustrating a power control apparatus according toyet another embodiment of the disclosure, in which both the duty cycleand effective switching frequency of a switching operation may becontrolled to control power to a load;

FIG. 20 is a circuit diagram illustrating a portion of a power controlapparatus incorporating a tapped inductor, according to one embodimentof the disclosure;

FIG. 20A is a circuit diagram illustrating the portion of the powercontrol apparatus shown in FIG. 20, with additional components to reduceresidual stored energy, according to one embodiment of the disclosure;

FIG. 21 is a block diagram illustrating a lighting network based onmultiple power control apparatus, according to one embodiment of thedisclosure;

FIG. 22 is a diagram of a lighting apparatus incorporating multiplepower control apparatus according to one embodiment of the disclosure;

FIG. 22A is a diagram of a lighting apparatus similar to that shown inFIG. 22, with modified power factor correction control, according to oneembodiment of the disclosure;

FIG. 22B is a diagram illustrating circuit generalities of a powerfactor correction apparatus of FIG. 22A and a conceptual functionalblock diagram of a portion of a processor dedicated to control of thepower factor correction apparatus, according to one embodiment of thedisclosure;

FIG. 22C is a diagram illustrating further circuit details of the powerfactor correction apparatus shown in FIGS. 22A and 22B, according to oneembodiment of the present disclosure;

FIG. 23 is a block diagram illustrating a lighting network based onmultiple lighting apparatus similar to that shown in FIG. 22, accordingto one embodiment of the disclosure;

FIG. 23A is a block diagram illustrating an alternative lighting networkbased on multiple lighting apparatus similar to that shown in FIG. 22,according to one embodiment of the disclosure;

FIGS. 24A, 24B, 24C, 24D and 24E are diagrams illustrating various viewsof housing configurations for the lighting apparatus of FIG. 22,according to one embodiment of the disclosure;

FIGS. 25-34 are circuit diagrams illustrating a variety of power controlapparatus configurations according to other embodiments of thedisclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Applicants have recognized and appreciated that for some power supplyapplications and some types of loads, commercially availableconventional switching power supplies based on DC-DC converters may notbe best configured to facilitate a flexible and/or efficient provisionof power to a load. For example, although the power conversionefficiency of many conventional switching supplies is on the order ofapproximately 80% (from A.C. line voltage to a regulated DC voltageoutput), particular configurations and/or control requirements ofdifferent loads may significantly reduce the overall power conversionefficiency of a system that includes a DC-DC converter and a load,wherein the load itself may include various control circuitry.

Additionally, Applicants have recognized and appreciated that for someapplications and for some types of loads, the functions of providingappropriate power to the load and controlling some functionalityassociated with the load may be significantly streamlined, resulting incircuit implementations that have fewer components, higher overall powerefficiencies, and smaller space requirements.

In view of the foregoing, the present disclosure is directed generallyto various improved methods and apparatus for providing and controllingpower to at least some types of loads. In some embodiments discussedfurther below, a controlled predetermined power is provided to a loadwithout requiring any feedback information from the load (e.g., withoutmonitoring and/or regulation of load voltage and current), therebysignificantly reducing circuit complexity, number of components, sizeand efficiency.

In different embodiments disclosed herein, of particular interest areloads in which one or more functional components of the load arecontrolled by modulating power to the functional components. Examples ofsuch functional components may include, but are not limited to, motorsor other actuators and motorized/movable components (e.g., relays,solenoids), temperature control components (e.g. heating/coolingelements) and at least some types of light sources. Examples of powermodulation control techniques that may be employed in the load tocontrol the functional components include, but are not limited to, pulsefrequency modulation, pulse width modulation, and pulse numbermodulation (e.g., one-bit D/A conversion).

More specifically, one type of load of interest for a streamlined powersupply/control configuration according to various embodiments of thepresent disclosure is a lighting apparatus including one or morelight-emitting diode (LED) light sources whose perceived brightness maybe varied based on modulated pulsed power delivery. To facilitate adiscussion of improved power control methods and apparatus according tovarious embodiments of the present disclosure using an LED-basedlighting apparatus as an exemplary load, it is instructive to firstdiscuss one conventional arrangement in which a switching power supplyincluding a DC-DC converter provides power via a regulated DC outputvoltage to an LED-based lighting apparatus.

FIG. 10 is a diagram illustrating such an exemplary conventionalarrangement of a DC-DC converter 69 and an LED-based lighting apparatusserving as a load 40. As illustrated in FIG. 10, the lighting apparatusincludes one or more LEDs 100 and various other components configured tocontrol the intensity of radiation generated by the LED(s). One exampleof such an apparatus is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,016,038, issuedJan. 18, 2000, entitled “Multicolored LED Lighting Method andApparatus,” which patent hereby is incorporated herein by reference.

For purposes of the present discussion, the DC-DC converter 69 of FIG.10 is shown as a flyback regulator (first discussed above in connectionwith FIG. 8), and serves as a portion of a power supply which drawspower from an A.C. power source (i.e., an A.C. line voltage such as 120V_(rms)/60 Hz). Accordingly, the DC-DC converter 69 includes atransformer 72 and other components to provide appropriate isolationbetween the unregulated DC input voltage 30 (V_(in)) which is derivedfrom the A.C. line voltage, and the regulated DC output voltage 32(V_(out)). It should be appreciated that the forward converter of FIG.9, as well as other DC-DC converter configurations includinginput-output isolation features, and/or power factor correctioncomponents, likewise could be employed in conventional arrangementssimilar to that illustrated in FIG. 10.

In FIG. 10, the switch 20 of the DC-DC converter 69 is shown genericallyas a controllable “make-brake” circuit connection to indicate thatvarious components may be utilized to implement the function of theswitch 20 (e.g., BJTs, FETs, as well as other signal amplifier/switchdriver circuitry that may be required). Additionally, the components ofthe converter's voltage regulation feedback loop (refer to FIGS. 1 and7) are indicated collectively in FIG. 10 as a power supply controller80, which receives as an input a sample of the DC output voltage V_(out)and provides as an output the control signal 44 that operates the switch20. As discussed above in connection with FIGS. 1 and 7, the componentsof the power supply controller 80 are configured to vary the duty cycleof the control signal 44 (and hence the on-off operation of the switch20) so as to adjust the amount of energy transferred across thetransformer in a given time period, thereby making adjustments toV_(out) so that it is regulated at an essentially constant predeterminedoutput voltage level.

The lighting apparatus serving as the load 40 in the exemplaryarrangement of FIG. 10 includes one or more LEDs 100 controlled by anLED controller 82. Although only one LED 100 is depicted in FIG. 10 forsimplicity, it should be appreciated that the apparatus may includemultiple LEDs which may be interconnected in any of a variety of serial,parallel, or serial-parallel arrangements such that the converter'sregulated supply voltage V_(out) provides an appropriate voltage todrive the LEDs (an LED typically has a low forward voltage on the orderof 2 to 4 Volts, and multiple LEDs may be connected in serial/parallelarrangements such that a more commonly available supply output voltageV_(out), such as 12 Volts or 24 Volts, may be applied to the LEDarrangement without damaging the LEDs). In the arrangement of FIG. 10,the unregulated DC input voltage V_(in) provided to the DC-DC converter69 may be on the order of approximately 160 Volts or even significantlyhigher, and the converter may be configured to provide a regulated DCoutput or supply voltage V_(out) of 12 Volts or 24 Volts, for example.As indicated in FIG. 10, a common anode of the one or more LEDs 100 maybe connected to the positive terminal of the regulated supply voltageV_(out). The load 40 also may include one or more filter capacitors 88to filter any residual ripple on the supply voltage V_(out).

In the lighting apparatus/load 40 shown in FIG. 10, the intensity ofradiation generated by the one or more LEDs 100 is proportional to theaverage power delivered to the LED(s) over a given time period.Accordingly, one technique for varying the intensity of radiationgenerated by the one or more LEDs involves modulating the powerdelivered to the LED(s). To this end, the lighting apparatus alsoincludes a current regulator 84 and a switch 90 in the current path ofthe LEDs between+V_(out) and ground, as well as an LED controller 82(which also may be powered via the regulated supply voltage V_(out)).

The regulator 84 of the lighting apparatus/load 40 shown in FIG. 10generally is configured to define the maximum current I_(LED) throughthe one or more LEDs 100 when the switch 90 is closed so as to completethe current path. Hence, given the fixed supply voltage V_(out) (andhence a fixed voltage V_(LED) across the LED(s) when energized), theregulated current I_(LED) also determines the amount of instantaneouspower P_(LED) delivered to the LED(s) when they are energized(P_(LED)=V_(LED)·I_(LED)).

In the exemplary arrangement of FIG. 10, the LED controller 82 may beconfigured to control the switch 90 using a pulse width modulationtechnique so as to modulate the average power delivered to the LED(s)over time. In particular, the LED controller is configured to repeatedlyopen and close the switch 90, thereby energizing the one or more LEDs ina pulsed fashion, preferably at a frequency that is greater than thatcapable of being detected by the human eye (e.g., greater thanapproximately 100 Hz). In this manner, an observer of the lightgenerated by the LED(s) does not perceive discrete on and off cycles(commonly referred to as a “flicker effect”), but instead theintegrating function of the eye perceives essentially continuousillumination. By adjusting the average amount of time the LED(s) areenergized in any given time period (i.e., by adjusting the average powerdelivered to the LED(s)), the perceived brightness of the generatedlight may be varied. The LED controller 82 may accomplish this byadjusting the duty cycle of the switch 90 (i.e., by increasing ordecreasing the time the switch is on or closed during successiveswitching cycles). As shown in FIG. 10, the LED controller 82 mayreceive a control signal or control data 86 which specifies the switch'sduty cycle at any given time, and hence the perceived brightness ofobserved light.

In yet another exemplary arrangement illustrated in FIG. 11, in additionto the one or more LEDs 100, the lighting apparatus/load 40 may includeone or more additional LEDs 100A having a color different than that ofthe LED(s) 100. As illustrated in FIG. 11, the circuit arrangement ofthe LED(s) 100A is similar to that of the LED(s) 100; namely, a commonanode of the LED(s) 100A is connected to the positive terminal ofV_(out), and a regulator 84A is configured to define the maximum currentI_(LED(A)) through the LED(s) 100A when a switch 90A is closed so as tocomplete the current path. In FIG. 11, the LED controller 82 isconfigured to also control the switch 90A using a pulse width modulationtechnique so as to control the average power delivered to the LED(s)100A over time (and hence the perceived brightness of light generated bythe LEDs 100A), as discussed above in connection with FIG. 10.

The LED controller 82 shown in FIG. 11 further may be configured tocontrol the switches 90 and 90A independently (e.g., based on one ormore control signals or control data 86) so as to independently adjustthe perceived brightness of the differently colored light respectivelygenerated by the LED(s) 100 and the LED(s) 100A. In this manner, avariety of different perceivable colors may be generated by the lightingapparatus based on well-established color mixing principles. It shouldbe appreciated that in other arrangements, lighting apparatus similar tothose shown in FIGS. 10 and 11 may include LEDs having three or moredifferent colors, wherein the respective intensities of radiationgenerated by differently-colored LEDs are controlled independently in amanner similar to that discussed above, so as to generate a wide varietyof variable-color light.

Applicants have recognized and appreciated that several issues relatingto inefficiency and functional redundancy are presented by the exemplaryconventional DC-DC converter/load arrangements illustrated in FIGS. 10and 11.

First, there are noteworthy inefficiency issues raised by the practicallimitations of commercially available switching power supplies. Forexample, it should be readily appreciated that conventional switchingpower supplies generally are commercially available with only a fewpredetermined voltage output levels (e.g., typically 5V, ±12V, ±15V,24V, etc.) and selected ranges of power output capabilities (in largepart determined by various industry conventions). The limited choices ofoutput voltage and output power rating of commercially availableswitching power supplies may result in a less than optimum matchingbetween supply voltage/power rating, and particular voltage/powerrequirements of a given load.

With respect to voltage, the regulated DC output voltages typicallyavailable in commercial power supplies (as exemplified by the converter69 in FIGS. 10 and 11) may not be ideally suited for the particular loadin question, thereby requiring some voltage or currentadjustment/regulation circuitry to appropriately drive one or morefunctional components of the load. As discussed above in connection withthe exemplary arrangements of FIGS. 10 and 11, given commonly availableregulated DC supply voltages V_(out) of 12 Volts or 24 Volts driving anLED-based lighting apparatus, significantly lower voltage LEDs need tobe particularly interconnected and arranged in the lighting apparatus,together with a current regulator, to ensure proper operation of theLED(s) without damage. The requirement of a regulator or similaradjustment circuitry based on a less than optimum supply voltage V_(out)inevitably wastes power and space.

Similarly, potential mismatches between the power requirements of thelighting apparatus/load 40 and the power provision capabilities of agiven switching power supply may give rise to inefficiencies and waste.For example, consider a particular power requirement P_(LOAD) of a givenlighting apparatus/load 40 (e.g., based on the number and type of LEDsthat may be energized at any given time and the various control andother support circuitry present in the lighting apparatus/load). Given apredetermined selection of output power ratings for commerciallyavailable supplies, it is possible that there is no supply readilyavailable with an output power rating that is safely above, butreasonably close to, the power requirements of the given load.Accordingly, a power supply that is significantly over-specified (i.e.,capable of providing power outputs significantly greater than P_(LOAD))may be the only reasonable choice in this situation. Again, such a powermismatch involves inefficiency and waste, at least with respect tooversized components in the power supply.

Furthermore, in lighting apparatus/loads 40 with large numbers of LEDsand/or high-power LEDs to provide significant illumination, transmissionof the required power over any appreciable distance between the DC-DCconverter and the load may present another inefficiency issue. Forexample, given the converter's fixed regulated DC output voltage (e.g.,at 12 Volts or 24 Volts), larger numbers of LEDs and/or high-power LEDsin the lighting apparatus/load may draw significant current whenenergized, resulting in potentially significant resistive losses in anycable/conductors connecting the load to the DC-DC converter (especiallyif the lighting apparatus/load is separated from the DC-DC converter byany appreciable distance).

In sum, the aforementioned inefficiency issues relate at least in partto some degree of inflexibility of the DC-DC converter, with respect topotential voltage and/or power mismatches between the converter and theload, as well as potential power transmission losses between theconverter and the load.

Second, it is particularly noteworthy in the exemplary conventionalarrangements illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11 that, generally speaking,the operation of the DC-DC converter to provide a regulated voltageoutput and the operation of the lighting apparatus to provide acontrollable light output are significantly similar at least withrespect to the switching operations present in both. Specifically, asimilar modulated switching operation determines the desired output forboth the DC-DC converter and the lighting apparatus.

In view of the foregoing, various embodiments of the present disclosureare directed generally to methods and apparatus for providing andcontrolling power to at least some types of loads, wherein overall powerefficiency typically is improved and functional redundancy of componentsis significantly reduced as compared to conventional arrangements. Indifferent aspects, implementations of methods and apparatus according tovarious embodiments disclosed herein generally involve significantlystreamlined circuits having fewer components, higher overall powerefficiencies, and smaller space requirements.

In some embodiments discussed further below, a controlled predeterminedpower is provided to a load without requiring any monitoring of loadvoltage and/or load current (i.e., without any feedback from the load).In one aspect of such embodiments in which feedback is not required,isolation components typically employed between a lower DC load supplyvoltage and a source of power derived from an AC line voltage (e.g., ahigh DC voltage input to a DC-DC converter) in some cases may not berequired, thereby reducing the number of required circuit components. Inanother aspect, eliminating the need for a feedback loop generallyincreases circuit speed and avoids potentially challenging issuesrelating to feedback circuit stability.

One embodiment disclosed herein is particularly directed to a“feed-forward” driver for an LED-based light source. The feed-forwarddriver according to this embodiment combines the functionality of aDC-DC converter and a light source controller, and is configured tocontrol the intensity of light generated by the light source based onmodulating the average power delivered to the light source in a giventime period, without monitoring or regulating the voltage or currentprovided to the light source. In one aspect of this embodiment, thefeed-forward driver is configured to store energy to and release energyfrom one or more energy transfer elements using a “discontinuous mode”switching operation. This type of switching operation, as discussedfurther below, facilitates the transfer of a predictable quantum ofenergy per switching cycle, and hence a predictable controlled powerdelivery to the light source.

Following below are more detailed descriptions of various conceptsrelated to, and embodiments of, power control methods and apparatusaccording to the present disclosure. It should be appreciated thatvarious concepts introduced above and discussed in greater detail belowmay be implemented in any of numerous ways, as the disclosed conceptsare not limited to any particular manner of implementation. Examples ofspecific implementations and applications are provided for illustrativepurposes only.

FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating a “feed-forward” power controlapparatus 200 based at least in part on a switching power supplyconfiguration, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure.The terms “feed-forward” used in connection with the embodiment of FIG.12, as well as other embodiments discussed below, refer to circuitconfigurations in which information associated with a load (e.g., adesired power to be drawn by the load, a desired voltage to be appliedacross the load, etc.) is known in advance and used to facilitatecircuit operation. For example, in various examples of feed-forwardpower control apparatus disclosed herein, a controlled predeterminedpower is provided to a load via a switched energy transfer methodwithout requiring any feedback information from the load; i.e., there isno requirement to monitor load voltage and/or load current. Rather, acontrolled predetermined power is provided to the load based onmonitoring one or more parameters relating to the source of powerprovided to the power control apparatus (e.g., a voltage input orcurrent drawn from a power source), is as well as other controlinformation or data known in advance relating to desired loadparameters.

As shown in FIG. 12, the power control apparatus 200 receives a DC inputvoltage 212 (V_(in)) and draws an input current 210 (I_(in)) from asource of power. The DC input voltage 212 may be a regulated orunregulated DC voltage and may be derived, for example, from a rectifiedand filtered AC line voltage or another DC source of power, as discussedabove in connection with the DC input voltage 30 shown in earlierfigures. FIG. 12 also shows that the power control apparatus 200 isconfigured such that the input current I_(in) passes through an energytransfer arrangement 202 via the operation of a switch 214. The switch214 in turn is controlled by a switch controller 204, which isconfigured to control the switch 214 via a control signal 216 that isgenerated in response to one or more monitored power source parameters206 (e.g., V_(in) and/or I_(in)) as well as other control information ordata 208 provided to the apparatus 200. While not explicitly shown inFIG. 12, according to various implementations discussed in greaterdetail below, operating power for the switch controller 204 may bederived from the DC input voltage V_(in) or another source of power.

In FIG. 12, the switch 214 performs a role substantially similar to thatof the transistor switches 20 shown in earlier figures. Accordingly, oneexemplary implementation of the switch 214 includes, but is not limitedto, one or more transistors (e.g., BJTs, FETs) configured to operate asa saturated switch, together with other signal amplifier/switch drivercircuitry that may be required to properly operate the transistors. Theenergy transfer arrangement 202 illustrated in FIG. 12 generallyrepresents one of several possible circuit arrangements configured toimplement the general functionality of a DC-DC converter providing powerto a load. More specifically, according to different aspects of thisembodiment, the energy transfer arrangement 202 may include variouscomponents configured to implement the general functionality of one of abuck converter, a boost converter, a buck-boost converter, a CUKconverter, a flyback converter, and a forward converter (all of whichwere discussed above in connection with FIGS. 1 and 4-9), as well asother DC-DC converter arrangements not specifically discussed herein.

As shown in FIG. 12, the energy transfer arrangement 202 is configuredto provide a DC output voltage 222 (V_(out)) to a load 218. However, asmentioned above and discussed in greater detail below, unlike theconventional arrangements shown in earlier figures, the energy transferarrangement 202 in the embodiment of FIG. 12 is not configured toprovide any information pertaining to the load (e.g., load voltageand/or load current) as feedback to affect the control of the switch214.

The interconnection of the energy transfer arrangement 202 to othercomponents of the power control apparatus 200 is shown generally in FIG.12 to facilitate an introductory discussion of the operation of thepower control apparatus. It should be appreciated, however, that aparticular interconnection of components in a given implementation ofthe power control apparatus 200 may be dictated by the type of DC-DCconverter employed in the energy transfer arrangement 202. Some examplesof particular arrangements are discussed in greater detail below, inconnection with FIGS. 13 and 15-19.

In another aspect of the embodiment of FIG. 12, the feed-forward powercontrol apparatus 200 may be configured to store energy to, and releaseenergy from, one or more energy transfer elements of the energy transferarrangement 202 using a “discontinuous mode” switching operationimplemented by the switch controller 204 and the switch 214. This typeof switching operation facilitates the transfer of a predictable quantumof energy per switching cycle, and hence a predictable controlled powerdelivery to the load 218. The discontinuous mode switching operation isnow discussed in greater detail, with reference initially to FIGS. 13and 14.

FIG. 13 is a diagram similar to FIG. 12 schematically illustratingadditional details of an exemplary energy transfer arrangement 202 ofthe power control apparatus 200 according to one embodiment of thepresent disclosure. In the example of FIG. 13, the energy transferarrangement is shown as a buck-boost or inverting converter, includingthe inductor 220 as an energy transfer element having an inductance L,as well as other DC-DC converter circuitry that is configured to providethe DC output voltage 222 to the load 218. As discussed above inconnection with FIG. 12, it should be appreciated that the exemplarybuck-boost configuration shown in FIG. 13 is provided primarily forpurposes of illustrating various concepts relating to discontinuous modeoperation; however, power control apparatus according to the presentdisclosure are not limited to this particular configuration, and otherconfigurations may be operated in discontinuous mode according to otherembodiments. In FIG. 13, the current 210 (I_(in)) flows through theinductor 220 with operation of the switch 214, based on the voltage 212(V_(in)) applied to the inductor. For purposes of highlighting some ofthe more salient general concepts underlying the operation of the powercontrol apparatus 200, ideal components and a substantially losslesstransfer of energy are assumed in the following discussion.

FIG. 14 is an exemplary timing diagram showing two consecutive switchingcycles 213 of the switch 214 shown in FIGS. 12 and 13, according to oneembodiment of the disclosure. FIG. 14 shows a pulsed voltage 225 (V_(L))applied across the inductor 220 based on the input voltage V_(in) duringconsecutive on/off switching cycles of the switch 214. As in FIG. 3, thetime during which the switch 214 is on or closed is indicated in FIG. 14as t_(on), and the time during which the switch is off or open isindicated as t_(off). Hence, as discussed above, the period T of a givenswitching cycle 213 is given by t_(on)+t_(off), and the frequency f ofmultiple switching cycles is given by 1/T.

In FIG. 14, superimposed on the pulsed voltage 225 applied across theinductor is the current 224 (I_(L)) through the inductor 220. Asdiscussed above in connection with FIG. 3, when the switch 214 is closedfor the time period t_(on), the voltage V_(L) applied to the inductorcauses a linearly increasing current I_(in)=I_(L) to flow through theinductor based on the relationship V_(L)=L·dI_(L)/dt, during whichenergy is stored in the inductor's magnetic field. At the end of thetime period t_(on), FIG. 14 indicates that the inductor current I_(L)reaches a maximum peak value I_(P). This same relationshipV_(L)=L·dI_(L)/dt causes the inductor current I_(L) to linearly decreaseduring the time period t_(off) when the switch 214 is off or opened, asthe stored energy is provided to the load via the other DC-DC convertercircuitry.

The timing diagram of FIG. 14 is similar to that shown earlier in FIG.3, but differs from FIG. 3 in that the inductor current I_(L)illustrated in FIG. 14 reflects a “discontinuous mode” switchingoperation rather than a continuous mode switching operation. Inparticular, at the beginning and end of each switching cycle, the powercontrol apparatus is configured such that the inductor current I_(L) iszero; specifically, the inductance L of the inductor and the duty cycleof the switch 214, as well as other components of the apparatus, areconfigured such that essentially all of the energy stored in theinductor during the time t_(on) is transferred to the load in a time t₂which is less than t_(off), thereby ensuring no current through theinductor at the beginning and end of each switching cycle (and noresidual stored energy in the inductor's magnetic field). As shown inFIG. 14, the period of time between the end of t₂ and the end of t_(off)represents a discontinuity in the inductor current I_(L); hence the term“discontinuous” mode.

By employing a discontinuous mode switching operation, and ensuringessentially zero inductor current at the beginning and end of eachswitching cycle, the transfer of a predictable quantum of energy perswitching cycle is facilitated, and hence a predictable controlled powerdelivery to the load. For example, with reference to FIG. 14, thequantum of energy W_(in) (in Joules) stored in the inductor's magneticfield by the end of the time period t_(on), assuming a zero initialinductor current, is given by W_(in)=½L (I_(P))². Assuming a losslesstransfer of energy, a quantum of energy W_(out) equal to W_(in) istransferred, during the time period t₂<t_(off), from the inductor'smagnetic field to the load while the switch 214 is opened for the periodt_(off). With each successive switching cycle, a predictable quantum ofenergy is thusly transferred.

Since power is defined as the amount of energy transferred in a giventime period (i.e., P=dW/dt), the power P transferred to the load may beexpressed as:

$\begin{matrix}{{P = {\frac{\mathbb{d}W}{\mathbb{d}t} = {\frac{\frac{1}{2}{L( I_{P} )}^{2}}{T\;} = {\frac{1}{2}{L( I_{P} )}^{2}f}}}},} & (1)\end{matrix}$where f=1/T is the switching frequency of the switch 214. From theforegoing, it may be appreciated that the power to the load may bemodulated by varying one or both of the switching frequency f and thepeak inductor current I_(P), given the inductance L of the inductor. Asdiscussed above, the peak inductor current I_(P) is determined by theduty cycle of the switch 214 (in particular, the time period t_(on)).Hence, in the embodiments of FIGS. 12-14, one or both of the frequencyand the duty cycle of the switch 214 may be controlled to provide apredictable variable power to the load without any feedback informationpertaining to the load.

Another way to view controlling power to the load in the embodiments ofFIGS. 12-14 is to consider the transfer of multiple quanta of energyover a time period covering multiple switching operations:P=(Quantum of energy per transfer)×(Number of transfers per timeperiod).   (2)From this viewpoint, it may be appreciated that the power to the loadmay be adjusted by one or both of 1) adjusting the quantum of energy pertransfer and 2) varying over time the number of transfers each havingthe same quantum of energy.

To further explore the control of power to the load in the embodimentsof FIGS. 12-14, an exemplary implementation involving holding the numberof energy transfers over time (e.g., the switching frequency f) constantand varying the duty cycle of the switching operation by varying thetime period t_(on) is now discussed in connection with FIG. 15. Inparticular, FIG. 15 illustrates a portion of the feed-forward powercontrol apparatus 200 shown in FIG. 13, according to one embodiment ofthe present disclosure, in which the duty cycle of the switch 214 iscontrolled based in part on monitoring the inductor current I_(L) whenthe switch 214 is on or closed (i.e., monitoring the current I_(in)drawn by the power control apparatus).

The embodiment of FIG. 15 includes some features discussed above inconnection with FIG. 7 regarding a conventional “current-mode” switchingregulator. For example, in FIG. 15, an input current sensing device 60,illustrated as a resistor R_(sense), is employed to sample the inductorcurrent I_(L) when the switch 214 is on or closed (this essentiallyamounts to sensing the input current I_(in)). Additionally, the switchcontroller 204 includes a comparator 62, a pulse width modulator 36, andan oscillator 26 that provides to the pulse width modulator a pulsestream 42 having a frequency f. As in FIG. 7, one exemplaryimplementation of the pulse width modulator 36 is a D-type flip-flopwith set and reset control, wherein the oscillator 26 provides the pulsestream 42 to the “Set” input of the flip-flop (low activated, S), thecomparator 62 provides a signal 64 to the “Reset” input of the flip-flop(low activated, R), and the flip-flop's “Q” output provides a pulsewidth modulated control signal 216 to the switch 214.

In the embodiment of FIG. 15, the function of the pulse width modulator36 and associated circuitry of the switch controller 204 is similar tothat discussed above in connection with FIG. 7. However, unlike FIG. 7,in FIG. 15 there is no feedback information relating to the load that isused to affect the control of the switch 214. Rather, the switchcontroller 204 in the embodiment of FIG. 15 is configured to control theswitch 214 based only on input information 208 representing the desiredamount of power to be transferred to the load, and the monitoredparameter 206 relating to the power provided to the power controlapparatus 200 (i.e., the inductor current I_(L)/input current I_(in)).

In particular, according to one aspect of this embodiment, the inputinformation 208 representing the desired amount of power to betransferred to the load may be in the form of a voltage set pointV_(sp). According to another aspect, the monitored parameter 206 may bea sensed voltage V_(sense) relating to the inductor current I_(L) assampled via the resistor R_(sense) (recall that the sampled inductorcurrent I_(L) in this example is identical to the input current I_(in)).In FIG. 15, the pulse width modulator 36 adjusts the duty cycle of thecontrol signal 216, and hence the time period t_(on) during which theswitch 214 is closed, based on a comparison of the voltages V_(sp) andV_(sense). Thus, the voltage V_(sp) essentially determines the peakinductor current I_(P) at which the switch 214 opens during a givenswitching operation, thereby also determining the quantum of energytransferred during the switching operation. Accordingly, by varying thevoltage V_(sp), the transferred quantum of energy in a given switchingoperation, and hence the power to the load, similarly may be varied.

FIG. 16 illustrates a portion of a feed-forward power control apparatus200 based on the configuration of FIG. 13 according to yet anotherembodiment, in which the power to the load again may be adjusted byvarying the duty cycle of the switching operation and holding theswitching frequency f constant. In the embodiment of FIG. 16, the timeperiod t_(on), and hence the duty cycle of the switch 214, is controlledbased on monitoring the input voltage V_(in) to the power controlapparatus 200, rather than by sampling the input current I_(in) (via theinductor current I_(L)) as in FIG. 15.

With reference again to the timing diagram of FIG. 14, based on therelationship V_(L)=L·dI_(L)/dt, the peak inductor current I_(P) may beexpressed in terms of the input voltage V_(in), which in the embodimentof FIG. 16 appears across the inductor when the switch 214 is on orclosed:

${V_{in} = {{L\frac{\;{\Delta\; I_{L}}}{\Delta\; t}} = {{L( \frac{I_{P} - 0}{t_{on} - 0} )} = \frac{{LI}_{P}}{t_{on}}}}};$$I_{P} = {\frac{V_{in}t_{on}}{L}.}$Using the foregoing relationships and the relationship for the power Ptransferred to the load given in equation (1) above, the power Ptransferred to the load also may be expressed in terms of the inputvoltage V_(in) by substituting for I_(P):

$P = {{\frac{1}{2}{L( I_{P} )}^{2}f} = {\frac{( V_{in} )^{2}( t_{on} )^{2}}{2L}{f.}}}$

The foregoing relationship demonstrates that the power transferred tothe load may be expressed either in terms of the peak inductor currentI_(P) or the voltage V_(in) input to the apparatus 200. Accordingly, inthe embodiment of FIG. 16, the switch controller 204 is configured tomonitor the voltage V_(in) (rather than sample the inductor current) asthe monitored parameter 206 and receive as input information 208 somerepresentation of the desired load power so as to determine the dutycycle of the switch 214 based on the relationship:

$\begin{matrix}{{t_{on} = {\sqrt{\frac{2L}{f}}\frac{\sqrt{P}}{V_{in}}}},} & (3)\end{matrix}$

To this end, FIG. 16 illustrates that, according to one embodiment, theswitch controller 204 may include an analog-to-digital converter 226 tomonitor the voltage V_(in) and provide a suitable digitizedrepresentation of the voltage to a processor 250. The processor 250 alsoreceives the input information 208 representing the desired load power.As in FIG. 15, the switch controller 204 also includes the oscillator 26providing a pulse train 42 at the frequency f. The processor 250 isconfigured to generate the control signal 216 having a duty cycle basedon a desired t_(on) from equation (3) above by using the known circuitvalues for L and f, measuring V_(in), and using the input information208 relating to the desired load power P.

Having discussed the control of load power based on varying the dutycycle of the switching operation while holding the number of energytransfers over time (e.g., the switching frequency f) constant in theembodiments of FIGS. 15-16, we now turn to the effects on load powerbased on varying the number of energy transfers over time while holdingthe duty cycle of the switching operation constant. Recall fromequations (1) and (2) above that the power to the load may be adjustedby one or both of 1) adjusting the quantum of energy per transfer, as inthe embodiments of FIGS. 15 and 16, and 2) varying over time the numberof transfers each having the same quantum of energy.

To begin a discussion of this latter point, it should be readilyappreciated that the circuits shown in FIGS. 15 and 16 may be modifiedto establish a preset fixed quantum of energy per transfer. For example,this may be accomplished by fixing the voltage set point V_(sp) in FIG.15, or the desired power input P in FIG. 16, at some essentiallyconstant value rather than having these parameters received as variableinput information 208 (in some implementations in which the parametersV_(sp) and P are essentially fixed, some degree of nominal adjustment ofthese parameters nonetheless may be facilitated, for example, via trimpotentiometers and associated circuitry). Accordingly, in someembodiments discussed below relating to adjusting load power based onmodulating the frequency of switching operations, the input information208 instead may represent a desired switching frequency for the switch214, rather than a desired on-time or duty cycle of the switch 214.

Although the power relationship given in equation (1) above suggeststhat power to the load may be adjusted linearly with switching frequencyf, generally there are practical limits on the range of switchingfrequencies that place corresponding constraints on the supply of powerto the load. For example, there may be practical limits placed on therange of switching frequencies due to the component(s) used to implementthe switch 214 as well as other circuit components. At sufficiently highfrequencies, switching losses (which generally increase with increasingfrequency) may present practical limitations on the highest usablefrequency f in a given application. Also, radiated noise resulting fromhigh frequency switching operations may present practical limitations onthe highest usable frequency f due to regulatory constraints (presently,a general range of switching frequencies f conventionally employed inmany types of DC-DC converters includes, but is not limited to,frequencies from approximately 50 kHz-100 kHz).

Also, the type of load to be controlled also may influence the range ofswitching frequencies f that may be practically employed to controlpower to the load. For example, as discussed above, one load of interestaccording to some embodiments of the present disclosure includes one ormore LEDs, in which the perceived brightness of light generated by theLED(s) is controlled based on pulsed power delivery. With respect tothis type of load, the capacitor 34 shown in FIG. 13 (which may be usedwith some loads to smooth the output voltage V_(out)) may have anappropriately-sized capacitance, or optionally may be removed from theenergy transfer arrangement 202, as the LED(s) can respond toinstantaneous changes in the voltage V_(out). As discussed above, theLED(s) of such a load are energized in a pulsed fashion at a frequencythat is greater than that capable of being detected by the human eye(e.g., greater than approximately 100 Hz). so as to avoid a “flicker”effect. Hence, in this application, the “flicker frequency” of the humaneye may represent a lower limit for the switching frequency.

While the switching frequency f may be directly modulated to vary powerto a load according to equation (1), another possibility for varyingpower can perhaps best be observed from equation (2), and relates tovarying the number of fixed-quantum energy transfers over a time periodthat includes multiple periods T of an oscillator generating a referencepulse stream having a frequency f. This method essentially represents a“pulse dropping” or “pulse number modulation” technique based on theconcept of one-bit D/A conversion, and corresponds to varying aneffective frequency f_(eff) of the switching operation between someminimum and maximum value (based on the reference pulse stream frequencyf) so as to vary power to the load.

FIG. 17 is a block diagram schematically illustrating a pulse generationcontroller 230, which may be included as part of a switch controller 204of a power control apparatus 200, according to one embodiment of thepresent disclosure. In one exemplary implementation of a switchcontroller based on the embodiment of FIG. 17, the pulse generationcontroller 230 may be employed to replace the oscillator 26 of theswitch controllers 204 shown in either FIGS. 15 or 16, and the inputinformation 208 may be used to control the pulse generation controller230 rather than compared to a value representing one of the inputvoltage V_(in) or the input current I_(in).

In particular, the pulse generation controller 230 of FIG. 17 isconfigured to facilitate control of power to the load via a pulsedropping or pulse number modulation technique, rather than controllingthe quantum of energy per transfer via the duty cycle of the switch 214(as in the embodiments shown in FIGS. 15 and 16). To this end, the pulsegeneration controller 230 outputs a modified pulse stream 42′ having aneffective frequency f_(eff) that may be varied with respect to areference oscillator frequency f. This modified pulse stream 42′ is inturn used by a switch controller to control an effective frequency,rather than the duty cycle, of the control signal 216 that controls theswitch 214 (e.g., the modified pulse stream 42′ may be provided as aninput to a pulse width modulator similar to the modulator 36 shown inFIG. 15, or a processor similar to the processor 228 shown in FIG. 16,in place of the pulse stream 42).

As discussed above, in some embodiments of a switch controller based onthe pulse generation controller 230 of FIG. 17, the switch controllermay be configured to establish a preset fixed quantum of transferredenergy per switching cycle. With reference again to FIGS. 15 and 16,this may be accomplished, for example, by fixing the voltage set pointV_(sp) in FIG. 15, or the desired power input P in FIG. 16, at someconstant value rather than having these parameters received as variableinput information 208. In one aspect of such a switch controller, theinput information 208 instead may represent a desired effectiveswitching frequency f_(eff) for the switch 214, wherein the preset fixedvalues for V_(sp) or P represent a maximum power P_(max) to the loadwhen the input information 208 calls for a maximum effective frequencyf_(eff).

As shown in FIG. 17, according to one embodiment, the pulse generationcontroller 230 includes an N-bit register 238 to store a digital valuebetween zero and (2^(N)−1) based on the input information 208 (the inputinformation 208 may first be passed through an optional shift register239, discussed further below). According to one aspect of thisembodiment, the digital value stored in the N-bit register 238represents a desired effective switching frequency f_(eff) in the formof a percentage of the reference frequency f and is accordinglyindicated in FIG. 17 as % f. The pulse generation controller 230 alsoincludes the oscillator 26 providing the pulse stream 42 at thereference frequency f.

In FIG. 17, an N-bit accumulator 232 receives as a “clock” input thepulse stream 42, and is configured to load an N-bit digital input value240 into the accumulator 232 with every pulse of the pulse stream 42.The N-bit input value 240 loaded into the accumulator is the sum of theprevious value 234 stored in the accumulator, plus the digital value % fstored in the N-bit register 238 (based on the input information 208),as indicated by the adder 236. Like the register 238, the N-bitaccumulator has a maximum digital value of (2^(N)−1); hence, if theinput value 240 exceeds (2^(N)−1), the accumulator is configured tostore the difference between the input value 240 and (2^(N)−1), andoutput a carry signal 242 representing an overflow condition. The carrysignal returns to zero if the next pulse of the pulse stream 42 removesthe overflow condition (i.e., if the next input value 240 loaded intothe accumulator is less than (2^(N)−1)).

Hence, the carry signal 242 of the N-bit accumulator 232 represents amodified pulse stream 42′, wherein the number of pulses in the modifiedpulse stream output by the accumulator in a given time period (# pulsesout) is related to the number of pulses of the pulse stream 42 for thesame time period (# pulses in) by:

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{\#\mspace{14mu}{pulses}\mspace{14mu}{out}}{\#\mspace{14mu}{pulses}\mspace{14mu}{in}} = \frac{\%\; f}{2^{N}}},} & (4)\end{matrix}$where, again, % f represents the digital value stored in the N-bitregister 238 (ranging from zero to 2^(N)−1). As discussed above,according to one embodiment, this modified pulse stream 42′ is used bythe switch controller to determine the effective switching frequencyf_(eff) of the switch 214 of the power control apparatus. From the aboverelationship, dividing the numerator and denominator by units of time toobtain frequency (i.e., frequency=# pulses/unit time), this effectiveswitching frequency f_(eff) relates to the reference frequency faccording to:

$\begin{matrix}{f_{eff} = {( \frac{\% f}{2^{N}} ){f.}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$Hence, by varying the parameter % f between zero and (2^(N)−1), thepower to the load similarly may be varied according to equation (1)above (where f_(eff) is substituted for f).

As discussed above, there may be some practical lower limit on theeffective frequency f_(eff) depending on the type of load. For example,considering an exemplary load including one or more LEDs, switchingfrequencies significantly lower than approximately 100 Hz may result inan undesirable “flicker effect” in which the perceived brightness of theillumination generated by the LED(s) is no longer essentiallycontinuous.

For purposes of providing a practical example of control of one or moreLEDs based on a pulse number modulation technique as discussed above inconnection with FIG. 17, we consider an exemplary reference frequency fof 100 kHz for the pulse stream 42. It should be appreciated thatvarious implementations according to the present disclosure are notlimited in this respect, but rather that oscillator frequencies on theorder of 100 kHz are commonly employed in various DC-DC converterconfigurations; accordingly, this reference frequency provides anappropriate example for purposes of illustration, but other referencefrequencies may be used in various embodiments.

Given a reference frequency of 100 kHz and a minimum frequency ofapproximately 100 Hz to avoid an undesirable flicker effect for anLED-based load, it may be readily appreciated that the ratio of minimumto maximum frequency for the effective switching frequency f_(eff) is onthe order of 1:1000. Stated differently, to provide a minimum power tothe LED-based load without noticeable flicker in the present example,for every 1000 pulses of the pulse stream 42 at a frequency of 100 kHz,the pulse generation controller 230 of FIG. 17 should provide at leastone pulse in the modified pulse stream 42′ (see equations (4) and (5)above).

Accordingly, to accommodate this range of effective switchingfrequencies based on a reference frequency of 100 kHz, in one embodimentan N=10-bit register 238 and an N=10-bit accumulator 232 may be employedin the pulse generation controller 230 of FIG. 17, where 2¹⁰=1024. Thus,according to equation (5) above, a minimum effective frequency f_(eff)of (1/1024) f, or approximately 98 Hz, is achieved when the digitalvalue of % f=1, and a maximum effective frequency f_(eff) of (1023/1024)f or approximately 99.9 kHz, is achieved when the digital value of %f=1023. It should also be appreciated that, in the present example,variations in power to the load based on varying the value of % f arelimited to increments of 1/1024 of the maximum power P_(max), (i.e., theminimum power resolution capable of being achieved using a 10-bitregister and accumulator is 1/1024).

One issue that may arise in connection with controlling power to a loadincluding one or more LEDs relates to a somewhat non-linear relationshipbetween applied average power to the LED(s) and a correspondingperceived brightness of the light generated by the LED(s). For example,the perceived brightness of light generated by one or more LEDsgenerally changes more dramatically with changes in power at relativelylow power levels, whereas changes in power at relatively higher powerlevels generally results in a somewhat less pronounced change inperceived brightness.

In view of the foregoing, another embodiment of the pulse generationcontroller 230 shown in FIG. 17 is directed to enhancing the powerresolution capability of the controller (i.e., reducing the minimumincrement of power variation capable of being achieved by thecontroller) while at the same time essentially maintaining apredetermined ratio of minimum to maximum frequency for the effectiveswitching frequency f_(eff). By enhancing the power resolution, greatercontrol of power variation may be facilitated, which in some cases maybe especially desirable (e.g., at lower load powers for loads such asLEDs).

More specifically, according to one aspect of this embodiment, thenumber of bits N for the N-bit register 238 and the N-bit accumulator232 is selected such that the minimum to maximum frequency ratio (i.e.,1:2^(N)) for the effective switching frequency f_(eff) is less than apredetermined required minimum ratio. For instance, in the examplediscussed above regarding LEDs, given a maximum reference frequency of100 kHz and a minimum frequency of approximately 100 Hz to avoid anundesirable flicker effect, a value of N=10 provides a required ratio ofminimum to maximum frequency for the effective switching frequencyf_(eff) (and a minimum power resolution) of 1:1024. By selecting anN>10, thereby reducing the ratio 1:2^(N), the power resolution may beenhanced (i.e., the minimum power increment may be reduced). However, soas to maintain the required minimum to maximum frequency ratio of1:1024, the minimum value of % f needs to be offset (i.e., increased) soas to ensure that the minimum effective frequency does not fallsignificantly below 100 Hz.

For purposes of illustration, consider the case of N=16 for the N-bitregister 238 and the N-bit accumulator 232 of FIG. 17. In this case, theminimum power increment is given by 1:2¹⁶, or 1:65,536 (i.e., asignificant improvement in resolution over N=10). However, if theminimum value for % f were still allowed to be % f=1, the minimumeffective frequency f_(eff) would be approximately 1.5 Hz (i.e.,1/65,536·100 kHz), well below the minimum frequency to avoid anundesirable flicker effect. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the minimumvalue for % f is offset so as to maintain the appropriate ratio ofminimum to maximum frequency for the effective switching frequencyf_(eff). Hence, in the present example in which N=16, the minimum valueof % f including an offset, would be 64, such that the minimum effectiveswitching frequency would be (64/65,536·100 kHz), or approximately 98Hz. From this minimum value, the effective switching frequency may beincreased in increments of (1/65,536·100 kHz)=1.5 Hz (as % f isincreased from 64 to 65 to 66, etc.), affording a significant increasein power control ability as compared to the example in which N=10.

To facilitate implementation of a pulse generation controller withenhanced power resolution, according to one embodiment the controller230 of FIG. 17 may include a shift register 239 to provide an offset toinput information 208. For example, consider a situation in which theinput information 208 is provided as a 10-bit digital value representing% f, and in which N=16 for the N-bit register 238 and the N-bitaccumulator 232. In this example, the required offset may be achieved byemploying the shift register 239 to shift the 10-bit digital valueprovided as the input information 208 six bits to the left (i.e.,2⁶=64). Thus, when the 10-bit digital value “1” is received as the inputinformation, the shift register 239 shifts the 10-bit value six bits tothe left, and stores the value “64” in the N=16-bit register 238.

It should be appreciated that, in the discussion above relating toenhanced power resolution in the pulse generation controller 230 of FIG.17, exemplary values for N and the number of bits in the inputinformation 208 are provided primarily for purposes of illustration, andthat various embodiments of the present disclosure are not limited inthis respect. Rather, it should be readily appreciated that, accordingto one aspect of this embodiment, the optional shift register 239 of thepulse generation controller 230 generally provides a degree offlexibility to the controller that facilitates enhanced powerresolution, based on input information 208 that otherwise may notprovide for a desired degree of power resolution. Furthermore, it shouldbe appreciated that a system or device providing the input information208 to the controller 230 may be configured to include an offset in theinput information, which may then be applied directly to the register238.

Having now discussed the control of load power based on varying the dutycycle of the switching operation while holding the number of energytransfers over time constant (FIGS. 15-16), and varying the number ofenergy transfers over time while holding the duty cycle of the switchingoperation constant (FIG. 17), it should be appreciated that according toother embodiments, both the duty cycle and switching frequency (oreffective switching frequency) of the switching operation may be varied,based on the concepts discussed above, to achieve a wide range of powercontrol capability.

For example, FIG. 18 is a diagram illustrating a power control apparatus200 according to yet another embodiment of the present disclosure, inwhich both the duty cycle and effective switching frequency of theswitch 214 may be controlled to control power to the load 218. In theembodiment shown in FIG. 18, the load is illustrated as a light sourceincluding one or more LEDs 100. As discussed above in connection withFIGS. 10 and 11, for loads including multiple LEDs, the LEDs may beinterconnected in any of a variety of serial, parallel, orserial/parallel arrangements. Additionally, according to differentaspects of this embodiment, the light source may include multiplesame-color LEDs and/or LEDs of different colors.

In one aspect, the power control apparatus 200 of FIG. 18 is based onthe configuration shown in FIG. 15, in that the monitored parameter 206provided to the switch controller 204 (which parameter relates to thepower supplied to the power control apparatus) is a sensed voltageV_(sense) representing the input current I_(in) (via the inductorcurrent I_(L) as sampled by the resistor R_(sense) when the switch 214is on or closed).

In the embodiment of FIG. 18, the energy transfer arrangement 202 isillustrated as a buck converter configuration including the diode 24,capacitor 34, and inductor 220 (e.g., see FIG. 1 for an example of abuck converter configuration). The buck converter configuration isdifferent from the buck-boost converter configuration shown in theenergy transfer arrangement 202 of FIG. 13, and is shown in FIG. 18 toagain highlight that various converter configurations may be employed inthe energy transfer arrangement 202 according to different embodimentsof a power control apparatus 200.

With respect to the energy transfer arrangement 202, one noteworthydifference between the buck converter configuration shown in FIG. 18 andthe buck-boost converter configuration of FIG. 13 is that in the buckconverter of FIG. 18, the current I_(in) drawn by the apparatus 200passes through the load 218 (e.g., the one or more LEDs 100) as well asthe inductor 220 when the switch 214 is on or closed. In this sense, itshould be appreciated that some power is provided to the load 218 duringboth of the time periods t_(on) and t_(off) of a given switching cycle.While this situation should be taken into consideration when calculatinga desired power to be delivered to the load, the general conceptsdiscussed above in connection with controlling load power based on oneor both of the duty cycle and effective frequency of switchingoperations apply similarly to both the buck and buck-boost converterconfigurations, as well as a variety of other DC-DC converterconfigurations that may be employed in the energy transfer arrangement202 in various embodiments of a power control apparatus 200.

In the embodiment of FIG. 18, as mentioned above, the switch controller204 employs a variety of features to facilitate control of both the dutycycle and the effective switching frequency of the switch 214. To thisend, in one aspect of this embodiment the switch controller 204 includesa processor 250 that receives the input information 208 representing adesired load power. In response to the input information 208, theprocessor 250 is configured to provide as outputs the voltage set pointV_(sp) (which ultimately determines the duty cycle of the switch 214) aswell as the modified pulse stream 42′ having a frequency f_(eff) (whichdetermines the effective switching frequency of the switch 214). Asshown in FIG. 18, according to another aspect, the processor 250 isconfigured to implement the functions of the pulse generation controller230 discussed above in connection with FIG. 17 so as to provide themodified pulse stream 42′. The other illustrated components of theswitch controller 204, namely the comparator 62 and the pulse widthmodulator 36, function as discussed above in connection with FIG. 15,based on the outputs V_(sp) and the modified pulse stream 42′ providedby the processor 250.

In the embodiment of FIG. 18, the processor 250 may be configured toprocess the input information 208 in any of a variety of manners;generally, the processor may be configured to vary one or both of theparameters V_(sp) and f_(eff) based on a desired load power representedby the input information 208. This capability provides for a wide rangeof flexibility in controlling load power for different types of loads.

For example, in one aspect of this embodiment, for a relatively higherrange of desired load powers, the processor may be configured to fix thevoltage V_(sp) at a predetermined value, thereby fixing the switch'sduty cycle and hence the quantum of energy transferred to the load in agiven switching cycle. With V_(sp) fixed, the processor may beconfigured to then control load power via adjustments to the effectiveswitching frequency f_(eff) (via changes to the modified pulse stream42′). In contrast, for a relatively lower range of desired load powers,the processor may be configured to vary the voltage V_(sp) while holdingf_(eff) constant at some appropriate predetermined value. In yet anotheraspect, for some intermediate range of desired load powers, theprocessor may be configured to vary both V_(sp) and f_(eff).

The foregoing exemplary technique of employing different controlparameters to vary power to the load over different ranges of desiredload power may be particularly useful for controlling a load includingone or more LEDs, wherein increased power resolution at low load powersgenerally is desirable. In particular, at relatively low effectiveswitching frequencies approaching approximately 100 Hz, furtherreductions in load power may be achieved via adjustments to V_(sp) (toavoid a “flicker effect” at switching frequencies substantially lowerthan approximately 100 Hz). Also, enhanced power resolution featuresdiscussed above in connection with FIG. 17 also may be employed tofacilitate more precise lower range load power control via the effectiveswitching frequency f_(eff). Again, the foregoing is intended merely toprovide some examples of flexibly controlling power to a load via one orboth of duty cycle and switching frequency, and it should be appreciatedthat various embodiments according to the present disclosure are notlimited to these examples.

In other aspects of the embodiment of a power control apparatus 200shown in FIG. 18, the processor 250 may be an addressable device so asto facilitate control of the power control apparatus 200 via a network.For example, in a network environment, the input information 208 may beprovided to a number of different devices, including multiple powercontrol apparatus with respective loads, wherein the input information208 includes load power control information for the multiple powercontrol apparatus. According to one embodiment, as the input information208 is communicated via the network to different power controlapparatus, the processor 250 of a given apparatus may be configured tobe responsive to particular information/data (e.g., power controlcommands) that pertain to it (e.g., in some cases, as dictated by aparticular identifier or address associated with the processor). Oncethe processor 250 identifies particular information/data intended forit, it may process the information/data and control load powerconditions accordingly (e.g., via one or both of V_(sp) and f_(eff) inFIG. 18).

In yet another aspect of the embodiment shown in FIG. 18, the processor250 of a given power control apparatus 200, whether or not coupled to anetwork, may be configured to interpret input information 208 that isreceived in a DMX protocol (as discussed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No.6,016,038), which is a lighting command protocol conventionally employedin the lighting industry for some programmable lighting applications.However, it should be appreciated that power control apparatus accordingto various embodiments of the present disclosure are not limited in thisrespect, as they may be configured to be responsive to other types ofcommunication protocols.

FIG. 19 is a diagram illustrating a power control apparatus 200according to yet another embodiment of the present disclosure, in whichboth the duty cycle and effective switching frequency of the switch 214may be controlled to control power to the load 218. In the embodimentshown in FIG. 19, the load is again illustrated as a light sourceincluding one or more LEDs 100, coupled to an energy transferarrangement 202 based on a buck converter configuration. However, itshould be appreciated that these aspects of the apparatus shown in FIG.19 are provided merely as examples, and that the embodiment of FIG. 19is not limited in these respects.

In one aspect, the power control apparatus 200 of FIG. 19 is based onthe configuration shown in FIG. 16, in that the monitored parameter 206provided to the switch controller 204 is the input voltage 212 (V_(in)).In particular, the processor 250 of the switch controller shown in FIG.19 may include an A/D converter 226 to monitor the voltage V_(in) andprovide a suitable digitized representation of this input voltage. Likethe embodiment of FIG. 18, the processor 250 in FIG. 19 also may beconfigured to implement the function of the pulse generator controller230, and again receives as input information 208 some representation ofthe desired load power, in response to which the processor 250 controlsthe duty cycle (e.g., see equation (3) above) and/or effective switchingfrequency of the switch 214 via the control signal 216.

In other aspects of the embodiment shown in FIG. 19, the power controlapparatus 200 may be configured to process the input information 208 inany of a variety of manners, as discussed above in connection with FIG.18, to flexibly control the duty cycle and/or effective switchingfrequency of the switch 214 over various ranges of desired load power.Additionally, the processor 250 of FIG. 19 may be an addressable deviceso as to facilitate control of the power control apparatus 200 via anetwork. In yet another aspect of this embodiment, the processor 250 maybe configured to interpret input information 208 that is received in aDMX protocol.

In some implementations of a power control apparatus according tovarious embodiments of the present disclosure, one or more energytransfer elements (e.g., inductors, transformers) of an energy transferarrangement 202 may include a tapped inductor or a transformer withmultiple windings having different numbers of turns to which an inputvoltage is applied and from which an output voltage is derived. Suchcomponents may facilitate the implementation of a power controlapparatus that effectively controls power to a load in situations wherethe DC input voltage V_(in) and the DC output voltage V_(out) of thepower control apparatus are significantly different (i.e., when theinput voltage is significantly greater or less than the output voltage).

With reference again to FIG. 1, consider the basic input-output voltagerelationship for the conventional buck converter, given by:

$\frac{V_{out}}{V_{in}} = D$(where D is the duty cycle of the switch). As discussed earlier, otherDC-DC converter configurations have somewhat similar relationshipsbetween voltage ratio and duty cycle. In any case, the relationshipabove generally illustrates the premise that as the desired outputvoltage becomes significantly different than the available inputvoltage, in some instances the required duty cycle of the switch maybecome very short or very long as compared to the total period of aswitching cycle. In general, an extremely low duty cycle (extremelyshort pulse time t_(on)) or an extremely long duty cycle (extremelyshort off time t_(off)) may make it more difficult to accurately controlthe amount of energy transferred to the load with each switching cycle.

In view of the foregoing, in some implementations of power controlapparatus according to various embodiments of the present disclosure, atapped inductor or a transformer having windings with different numbersof turns may be employed in an energy transfer arrangement 202, suchthat a turns ratio N of the inductor or transformer facilitates a moreaccurate control of energy transfer (the turns ratio N commonly isdefined as the number of windings of a transformer or inductor to whichan input voltage is applied, divided by the number of windings fromwhich an output voltage is taken). In various embodiments, the turnsratio N of the inductor or transformer may be selected such that thepulse time t_(on) is increased relative to the time t_(off) whileessentially maintaining a desired input-output voltage relationship. Inparticular, larger values of N increase the current during the transferof energy to the load and hence allow the stored energy to betransferred faster to the load.

FIG. 20 is a circuit diagram illustrating a portion of a power controlapparatus having an energy transfer arrangement 202 that incorporates atapped inductor 220T, according to one embodiment of the presentdisclosure. In particular, the energy transfer arrangement 202 shown inFIG. 20 is similar to the buck converter configuration illustrated inFIGS. 18 and 19, but includes the tapped inductor 220T rather than theinductor 220. It should be appreciated that any of the other energytransfer arrangements discussed herein may be equipped with a tappedinductor or transformer having some non-unity turns ratio N, and thatthe exemplary buck converter configuration arrangement shown in FIG. 20is provided primarily for purposes of illustration.

In the embodiment of FIG. 20, the input voltage V_(in) periodically isapplied across both the load 218 and all of the turns of the tappedinductor 220T, whereas the output voltage V_(out) is derived from only aportion of the total number of turns of the tapped inductor 220T.Accordingly, the turns ratio N of the tapped inductor 220T is greaterthan unity. An input-output voltage relationship for the energy transferarrangement 202 of FIG. 20 employing the tapped inductor 220T may begiven generally by:

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{V_{out}}{V_{in}} = {\frac{D}{N} = \frac{t_{on}}{NT}}},} & (6)\end{matrix}$where T=1/f is the period of each switching cycle.

To provide one exemplary implementation of a power control apparatusemploying the energy transfer arrangement 202 shown in FIG. 20 andexemplary circuit values for such an implementation, consider anapplication in which the expected input voltage V_(in) is on the orderof 400 Volts, a desired output voltage V_(out) is on the order of 20Volts, the frequency f of the switching operation is 100 kHz, and theturns ratio of the tapped inductor 220T is N=3. Additionally, in thisexemplary implementation, the desired power provided to the loadnominally is on the order of approximately 10 to 15 Watts.

To ensure discontinuous mode operation in this example, with referenceagain for the moment to FIG. 14, the quantity t_(on)+t₂ may be chosen tobe slightly less than the period T, for example, 0.9 T. With this inmind, and applying equation (6) above, the time t_(on) is givenapproximately by:

$\frac{V_{out}}{V_{i\; n}} = {\frac{20}{400} = {\frac{1}{20} = \frac{t_{on}}{3(T)}}}$t_(on) + t₂ = 0.9(T)${t_{on} + {\frac{17}{3}t_{on}}} = {0.9( \frac{1}{100\mspace{14mu}{kHz}} )}$t_(on) ≈ 1.35  μsec,where the substitution for t₂ is obtained by setting T=20t_(on)/3 in thesecond equation above. Recall from equation (3) that the time periodt_(on) also may be expressed in terms of the inductance L of theinductor, the frequency f, the desired power P and the input voltageV_(in), according to:

${t_{on} = {\sqrt{\frac{2L}{f}}\frac{\sqrt{P}}{V_{i\; n}}}},{P = {\frac{( V_{i\; n} )^{2}( t_{on} )^{2}}{2L}{f.}}}$orFrom the above relationship, using the approximate value for t_(on) of1.35 microseconds, the frequency f=100 kHz, the input voltage V_(in)=400Volts, and an exemplary inductance value L=1.0 milli-Henries for thetapped inductor 220T, the resulting power P to the load is approximately14.5 Watts. Of course, as discussed above in connection with severalembodiments, the exemplary nominal value for load power given above maybe varied by varying one or both of the frequency f and the time periodt_(on).

Again, it should be appreciated that the foregoing example is providedprimarily for purposes of generally illustrating an exemplary range ofinput and output voltage parameters and desired load power given someexemplary circuit values for one possible implementation. In general,the inductance value L and turns ratio N of the tapped inductor (as wellas corresponding values for a transformer in embodiments in which atransformer is employed) may be selected to facilitate predictabletransfer of a desired range of load powers given the expected inputvoltage, desired output voltage and general range of switchingfrequencies.

In some implementations of power control apparatus according to variousembodiments of the present disclosure, depending on the actualcomponents employed, one or more energy storage elements (e.g.,inductors) may not completely discharge their stored energy to the loadduring the t_(off) time period of each switching cycle. In the case ofinductors or transformers serving as energy storage elements, thisresidual energy may be due primarily to a winding capacitance. Theamount of the residual energy stored in the winding capacitance isvoltage dependent (since the energy-capacitance relationship W=(½)CV²includes the voltage squared as a principal term). Such residual energymay be observed as a “ringing” at the conclusion of a switching cycle,which represents the continual transfer of energy from the windingcapacitance to the inductance and back again. In some instances, thisresidual energy may affect the precision with which power may betransferred to the load.

According to one embodiment, this ringing effect due to residual energymay be reduced primarily by selecting inductors or transformers with alow winding capacitance. Any remaining residual energy further may bereduced, or even substantially eliminated, by providing a discharge pathfor the residual energy once the transfer of energy to the load iscomplete. For example, with reference again to the exemplary circuitshown in FIG. 20, once the diode 24 stops conducting during the t_(off)period (i.e., at a point when substantially all of the energy stored inthe inductor 220T has been transferred to the load 100), a low impedancemay be appropriately placed across the inductor 220T for a short time,so as to effectively discharge any residual energy. In one exemplaryimplementation, this may be accomplished by placing an auxiliarytransistor (e.g., FET) across the inductor winding, which is switched onbriefly at an appropriate time (e.g., after the diode 24 ceases toconduct). In another exemplary implementation, the circuit configurationshown in FIG. 20A may be employed. In FIG. 20A, the tapped inductor 220Tis depicted as a series connection of three windings, across one ofwhich the voltage 216 may be obtained.

FIG. 21 is a block diagram illustrating yet another embodiment of thepresent disclosure, based on the various power control apparatusdiscussed above. In the embodiment of FIG. 21, multiple power controlapparatus 200A, 200B and 200C, similar to that shown for example ineither FIGS. 18 or 19, may be coupled together to form a lightingnetwork 420. In one implementation of such a network, each power controlapparatus receives operating power from the DC input voltage 212(V_(in)). While not explicitly shown in FIG. 21, this DC input voltagemay be in turn derived from an AC source of power (e.g., an AC linevoltage) via rectification and filtration components, for example. Eachpower control apparatus also receives input information 208, and isconfigured to control multiple LED-based loads to provide generalillumination and/or a variety of lighting effects.

More specifically, in the lighting network 420 shown in FIG. 21, thepower control apparatus 200A, 200B and 200C are configured to controlpower delivered to respective LED-based loads 100A, 100B and 100C basedon the input information 208. In one aspect, each of the LED-based loadsmay include one or more LEDs of a same color, and different loads mayinclude different color LEDs (e.g., the load 100A may include only oneor more red LEDs, the load 100B may include only one or more green LEDs,and the load 100C may include only one or more blue LEDs). In otheraspects, one or more of the LED-based loads 100A, 100B and 100C mayinclude only white LEDs, and two or more different LED based loads mayinclude white LEDs that generate radiation having different respectivespectra or color temperatures (e.g., the load 100A may include one ormore white LEDs that generate radiation having a first spectrum, and theload 100B may include one or more white LEDs that generate radiationhaving a second spectrum different from the first spectrum). In anotheraspect, the respective loads may contain the same or different numbersof LEDs, and one or more of the loads may contain multiple LEDsinterconnected in any of a variety of serial, parallel, orserial/parallel configurations. In yet another aspect, one or more ofthe loads 100A, 100B and 100C may include multiple LEDs of mixed colors.

Although the lighting network 420 is shown in FIG. 21 as including threepower control apparatus 200A, 200B and 200C, it should be appreciatedthat the lighting network is not limited in this respect, as differentnumbers of power control apparatus and associated loads may be includedin such a lighting network according to various embodiments.Additionally, in other embodiments, one or more loads other thanLED-based loads may be employed in similar multi-load configurationsbased on the general arrangement of components in the network 420.

As shown in FIG. 21, all of the power control apparatus forming thenetwork 420 may be configured to receive commonly distributed inputinformation 208 that may be provided, for example, from one or morenetwork controllers 425. To this end, in one aspect of this embodiment,multiple power control apparatus forming the network 420 may beconfigured with addressable processors, as discussed above in connectionwith FIGS. 18 and 19, having respective unique identifiers (e.g.,addresses) such that a given power control apparatus may be configuredto be responsive to particular portions of the input information 208(e.g., power control commands) that pertain to it. In yet another aspectof this embodiment, the network controller 425 and the processors of therespective power control apparatus forming the network 420 may beconfigured to communicate the input information 208 using a DMXprotocol.

In other aspects of the embodiment of FIG. 21, a given power controlapparatus of the lighting network 420 generally may be represented bythe embodiment shown in FIG. 12, and may incorporate any of a variety ofenergy transfer arrangements as well as various other features discussedabove in connection with FIGS. 15-20. In particular, the energy transferarrangement of a given power control apparatus of FIG. 21 may be basedon any one of a number of DC-DC converter configurations, includingthose with or without isolation features.

In one aspect of the lighting network 420 shown in FIG. 21, the DC-DCconverter functionality implemented by the respective power controlapparatus 200A, 200B and 200C facilitate a network in which a relativelyhigh DC input voltage V_(in) (e.g., on the order of approximately 150 to400 Volts DC) may be distributed to the power control apparatus formingthe network 420, which in turn each provides a significantly smalleroutput voltage V_(out) (e.g., on the order of 20 Volts) to itsassociated LED-based load. It should be appreciated that by distributinga DC source of power throughout the network via a relatively high DCvoltage, resistive power losses that may otherwise be significant fornetwork implementations involving substantial cable lengths may bereduced, thereby increasing power efficiency.

FIG. 22 is a diagram of a lighting apparatus 500 incorporating multiplepower control apparatus 200A, 200B, and 200C according to anotherembodiment of the present disclosure. In one aspect of the embodiment ofFIG. 22, the lighting apparatus 500 receives power from an AC linevoltage 67 (i.e., an AC source of power) and input information 208, andis configured to control multiple LED-based loads to provide generalillumination and/or a variety of lighting effects.

More specifically, in the lighting apparatus 500 shown in FIG. 22, thepower control apparatus 200A, 200B and 200C are configured to controlpower delivered to respective LED-based loads 100A, 100B and 100C basedon the input information 208, in a manner similar to that discussedabove in connection with FIG. 21. As discussed above in connection withthe embodiment of FIG. 21, the respective LED-based loads 100A, 100B and100C may include various numbers, arrangements, and colors of LEDs.Likewise, although the lighting apparatus 500 is shown in FIG. 22 asincluding three power control apparatus 200A, 200B and 200C, it shouldbe appreciated that the lighting apparatus is not limited in thisrespect, as any number (i.e., one or more) of power control apparatusand associated loads may be included in a lighting apparatus accordingto various embodiments. Additionally, in other embodiments, one or moreloads other than LED-based loads may be employed in similar multi-loadconfigurations based on the general arrangement of components in theapparatus 500.

In one aspect of the embodiment of FIG. 22, each power control apparatus200A, 200B and 200C receives a common DC input voltage 212 (V_(in)) thatmay be provided by an optional power factor correction apparatus 520. Ifthe optional power factor correction apparatus is not employed, the DCinput voltage 212 may be obtained across the filter capacitor 35(C_(filter)) across the output of the bridge rectifier 68 coupled to theAC line voltage 67 (i.e., an AC power source), in a manner similar tothat shown above in FIG. 8. Alternatively, in embodiments in which thepower factor correction apparatus 520 is employed, the power factorcorrection apparatus 520 receives power from the output of the bridgerectifier 68, and the filter capacitor 35 is employed in an output stageof the power factor correction apparatus (e.g., see FIG. 9A).

As discussed above in connection with FIGS. 9A and 9B, DC-DC converterswitching devices such as the power control apparatus 200A, 200B, and200C generally draw current from a power source in short pulses.However, for maximum power efficiency from an AC power source, the inputcurrent ultimately drawn from the AC line voltage ideally should have asinusoidal wave shape and be in phase with the AC line voltage. Thissituation commonly is referred to as “unity power factor.” The switchingnature of the power control apparatus and resulting pulsed current drawcauses these apparatus to have less than unity power factor, and thusless than optimum power efficiency. Also, if the power control apparatuswere to draw current from the AC line voltage with only interveningrectification and filtering (i.e., without power factor correction), thepulsed current drawn by the apparatus would place unusual stresses andintroduce generally undesirable noise and harmonics on the AC linevoltage.

In view of the foregoing, the power factor correction apparatus 520shown in FIG. 22 is configured to address these issues and provide for amore efficient provision of power to the power control apparatus 200A-Cfrom the AC line voltage 67. It should be appreciated, however, that insome applications the power factor correction apparatus 520 may not berequired, and that the lighting apparatus 500 may be implemented withoutpower factor correction in other embodiments. As discussed above inconnection with FIG. 9B, a number of conventional integrated circuitpower factor correction controllers (not specifically shown in FIG. 22)may be employed in a power factor correction apparatus in one exemplaryimplementation of the lighting apparatus of FIG. 22, some examples ofwhich include, but are not limited to, the Fairchild SemiconductorML4821 PFC controller, the Linear Technology LT1248 or LT1249controllers, and the ST Microelectronics L6561 controller.

As also illustrated in FIG. 22, the lighting apparatus 500 may include aprocessor 550 to receive input information 208 including power controlinformation for one or more of the power control apparatus 200A, 200Band 200C. The processor 550 in turn is configured to provide controlsignals 208A, 208B and 208C, based on the input information 208, so asto independently control the respective power control apparatus 200A,200B, and 200C (and hence the intensity of light generated by therespective loads 100A, 100B and 100C). In various aspects, as discussedabove in connection with FIGS. 18 and 19, the processor 550 may beconfigured as an addressable device so as to facilitate control of thelighting apparatus 500 via a network. In yet another aspect of thisembodiment, the processor 550 may be configured to interpret inputinformation 208 that is received in a DMX protocol.

In other aspects of the embodiment of FIG. 22, a given power controlapparatus of the lighting apparatus 500 generally may be represented bythe embodiment shown in FIG. 12, and may incorporate any of a variety ofenergy transfer arrangements as well as various other features discussedabove in connection with FIGS. 15-20. In particular, the energy transferarrangement of a given power control apparatus of FIG. 22 may be basedon any one of a number of DC-DC converter configurations, includingthose with or without isolation features. As discussed above, since thepower control apparatus generally represented in FIG. 12 does notinclude any feedback features relating to the load, in some applicationsDC-DC converter configurations not including isolation features may beemployed in the lighting apparatus 500, even though power is ultimatelybeing derived from an AC power source. Again, this feature in some casesfacilitates a significantly streamlined realization (e.g., fewercomponents, higher power efficiency, smaller space requirements, etc.)of a lighting apparatus 500 according to various embodiments discussedherein.

Additionally, in yet another aspect of the lighting apparatus 500 shownin FIG. 22, one or more functions performed by the various processors orother components of the switch controllers 204 illustrated in FIGS.15-20 may be performed by the processor 550; stated differently, theresources of the processor 550 may be shared amongst the powercontrollers 200A, 200B, and 200C to move some of the functionalityassociated with their respective switch controllers to the processor550.

For example, in one embodiment of the lighting apparatus 500 of FIG. 22,each of the power control apparatus 200A, 200B and 200C may be similarto that shown in FIG. 18. In this embodiment, however, the switchcontroller 204 of each power control apparatus would not necessarilyinclude the processor 250 shown in FIG. 18; rather, the functionsperformed by each of the processors 250 may be performed collectively bythe processor 550. In one aspect of this embodiment, each of the controlsignals 208A, 208B and 208C output by the processor 550 may include twosignals, namely, a first signal representing the set point voltageV_(sp) (to control duty cycle) and a second signal representing themodified pulse stream 42′ (to control effective switching frequencyf_(eff)). Again, the processor 550 would be configured to process theinput information 208, which may include power control information forone or more of the power control apparatus 200A, 200B and 200C, andappropriately provide a set point voltage V_(sp) and modified pulsestream 42′ independently to each of the power control apparatus 200A,200B and 200C, as specified by the input information 208.

In yet another embodiment of the lighting apparatus 500 of FIG. 22, eachof the power control apparatus 200A, 200B and 200C may be similar tothat shown in FIG. 19. In one aspect of this embodiment, however, thefunctions of the switch controller 204 of each power control apparatusessentially may be completely relegated to the processor 550. Inparticular, the processor 550 may be configured to sample (e.g., via aninternal A/D converter) the common input voltage V_(in) (e.g, see thedashed connections 206 in FIG. 22), and the control signals 208A, 208Band 208C output by the processor 550 may respectively serve as thecontrol signals 216 that control the switches 214 in each of the powercontrol apparatus 200A, 200B and 200C. The processor 550 further may beconfigured to independently generate the control signals 208A, 208B and208C so as to adjust one or both of the duty cycle and the effectiveswitching frequency of each of the switches 214 to control power to therespective loads 100A, 100B and 100C based on the input information 208.

In yet another embodiment of a lighting apparatus 500, as shown in FIG.22A, a processor 550-A may be configured to not only control the powercontrol apparatus 200A, 200B and 200C as discussed above, but toadditionally facilitate control of a power factor correction apparatus520-A based on information known in advance relating to one or moreparameters associated with the loads 100A, 100B and 100C. According tovarious aspects of this embodiment, by knowing in advance someparticular information relating to one or more of the loads, for examplethe desired power to a given load (as provided by the input information208), and/or the voltage V_(out) to be applied to a given load, theprocessor 550-A may control the power factor correction apparatus 520-Ain a “feed-forward” manner to significantly improve the operation of thepower factor correction apparatus.

Recall that, as discussed above in connection with FIGS. 9A and 9B, theoverall control loop response of conventional power factor correctionapparatus (due primarily to the voltage feedback loop 524 shown in FIG.9B) is relatively slow (e.g., a bandwidth of approximately 10 to 20 Hz)compared to the line frequency (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz). The relatively slowresponse of a conventional power factor control loop is required tofacilitate higher power factor by ensuring that any changes in thegenerated voltage V_(in) (which in turn affect adjustments to thecurrent I_(AC) drawn from the line voltage) occur over multiple cyclesof the line voltage rather than abruptly during any given cycle.However, as a result of this relatively slower control loop response,conventional power factor correction apparatus are known for theirpotential instability and less than optimal performance in connectionwith line voltage or power draw transients.

In view of the foregoing, the processor 550-A in the embodiment of FIG.22A is configured to control the power factor correction apparatus 520-Abased on “feeding-forward” known information about anticipated loadconditions. In this manner, the overall control loop response of thepower factor correction apparatus 520-A may be significantly improved soas to reduce fluctuations in the voltage 212 (V_(in)) provided to thepower control apparatus 200A, 200B, and 200C, particularly in situationsin which one or more desired load powers traverse a wide range in ashort time period (e.g., load full off to load full on, or vice versa).By mitigating fluctuations of V_(in) due to significant/sudden loadpower demand requirements, a more stable power factor correction controlmay be realized. Furthermore, smaller circuit components (such as asmaller filter capacitor 35) may be employed based on more predictableexpectations for signal values, thereby reducing the cost and/or size ofthe implemented circuits.

As shown in FIG. 22A, the processor 550-A of this embodiment receives asinputs the rectified line voltage 69 (V_(AC)) output by the bridgerectifier 68, as well as a signal 71 (I_(samp)) representing the currentI_(AC) drawn by the power factor correction apparatus 520-A (thederivation of the signal I_(samp) is discussed further below inconnection with FIGS. 22B and 22C). The processor 550-A also receives asinputs the voltage 212 (V_(in)) provided to the power control apparatus200A, 200B and 200C, and the input information 208 representing therespective desired load powers. Based on these inputs, the processor550-A is configured to generate the control signals 208A, 208B and 208Cas discussed above in connection with FIG. 22, as well as a power factorcontrol signal 73 to control the power factor correction apparatus520-A.

FIG. 22B is a diagram illustrating circuit generalities of the powerfactor correction apparatus 520-A, together with a conceptual functionalblock diagram of a portion of the processor 550-A dedicated to controlof the power factor correction apparatus 520-A, according to oneembodiment of the present disclosure. In general, the portion of theprocessor 550-A shown in FIG. 22B is configured to determine aneffective conductance G_(PFC) for the power factor correction apparatus520-A based in part on “feeding-forward” into the control loop acalculated total anticipated power draw P_(TOTAL) of the collectiveloads ultimately coupled to the voltage V_(in). Recall from FIG. 9B thatthe general architecture of a PFC controller includes a voltage feedbackloop and a current feedback loop to implement a control strategy thatmanipulates the instantaneous current I_(AC) drawn by the power factorcorrection apparatus based on a derived effective conductance G_(PFC)for the power factor correction apparatus. In the implementation of FIG.22B, the voltage feedback loop 524-A is modified from that shown in FIG.9B to include a term P_(TOTAL) representing the total anticipated powerdrawn from the AC power source. In this manner, rather than being merelyresponsive to changes in the voltage V_(in) as in FIG. 9B (and hencesubject to the low bandwidth of the low pass filter LPF), the voltagefeedback loop 524-A of FIG. 22B functions more “proactively” to generatean effective conductance G_(PFC), based on the fed-forward termP_(TOTAL).

More specifically, the processor 550-A of FIG. 22B is configured toperform a total power calculation 552 based in part on the inputinformation 208, which includes information relating to the desired loadpower for each of the loads 100A, 100B and 100C at any given time.Accordingly, in one aspect of this embodiment, as part of the totalpower calculation the processor 550-A adds together the respectivedesired load powers represented in the input information 208. In anotheraspect, the processor additionally considers any power consumptionand/or losses 556 in the respective power control apparatus themselves(indicated as “Miscellaneous Power” in FIG. 22B); for example, each ofthe power control apparatus may include one or more IC power supplies toprovide various bias voltages for the circuitry in each apparatus.Moreover, each power control apparatus generally has an associatedefficiency loss. This power consumption and/or loss 556 may becalculated and/or estimated in advance based on the particular circuitryemployed in the power control apparatus, and stored in memory for use bythe processor in the total power calculation to provide the termP_(TOTAL).

As shown in FIG. 22B, the processor 550-A then adds to the termP_(TOTAL) another term corresponding to the output of the low passfilter that conditions the error signal V_(e) in the voltage feedbackloop 524-A. In this manner, the conditioned error signal serves as anadjustment or correction to the fed-forward total power term P_(TOTAL)to provide an adjusted term P*_(TOTAL) for use in a conductancecalculation 554. Assuming that the term P*_(TOTAL) substantiallyrepresents the anticipated actual power to be drawn from the AC powersource, and that the operation of the power factor correction apparatusis to make the apparent power drawn essentially equal to the actualpower drawn, the processor may be configured to perform the conductancecalculation 554 according to the following relations:

P_(TOTAL)^(*) = (V_(AC, rms))(I_(AC, rms));V_(AC, rms) = (V_(AC, peak))(0.707);I_(AC, rms) = G_(PFC)(V_(AC, rms)) = G_(PFC)(V_(AC, peak))(0.707);P_(TOTAL)^(*) = G_(PFC)[(V_(AC, peak))(0.707)]²;$G_{PFC} = {\frac{P_{TOTAL}^{*}}{\lbrack {( V_{{AC},{peak}} )(0.707)} \rbrack^{2}}.}$Accordingly, to determine the effective conductance G_(PFC), theprocessor 550-A may be configured to sample the rectified line voltageV_(AC) to thereby determine its peak, and then implement the abovecalculation based on the term P*_(TOTAL).

Having thus derived the effective conductance G_(PFC), the processor550-A shown in FIG. 22B is then configured to implement a currentfeedback loop 528-A in a manner similar to the discussed above inconnection with FIG. 9B. In particular, the processor 550-A isconfigured to multiply the effective conductance G_(PFC) by themonitored rectified line voltage V_(AC) to generate a reference currentsignal I*_(AC) representing the desired current to be drawn from theline voltage. This signal I*_(AC) thus provides a reference or“set-point” input to the current control loop 528-A, wherein I*_(AC) iscompared to the signal 71 (I_(samp)) (e.g., in aproportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller). The result of such acomparison provides a current error signal I_(e) that controls a pulsewidth modulated (PWM) switch controller (e.g., similar to that discussedabove in connection with FIG. 7). The PWM switch controller in turnoutputs the control signal 73 to control the switch SW_(PFC) so as tomanipulate the actual current I_(AC) being drawn.

FIG. 22C is a diagram illustrating further circuit details of a powerfactor correction apparatus 520-A, according to one embodiment of thepresent disclosure. In the circuit of FIG. 22C, a signal 65′ (VACSENSE)is derived from the rectified line voltage 65 via a resistor dividernetwork formed by R49, R50 and R51, and is applied to the processor550-A as a signal representing the monitored rectified line voltageV_(AC). The signal 71 (I_(samp)) representing the actual current drawnby the apparatus 520-A is derived via current sensing elements 526comprising the circuit components R48, R29, R30, C21 and U5. The controlsignal 73 output by the processor 550-A to control the switch SW_(PFC)is applied first to a buffer amplifier U11B and then to the switchSW_(PFC) as the signal 73′. The filter capacitance 35 is provided in thecircuit of FIG. 22C by three capacitors C36, C37 and C40 connected inparallel. A signal 212′ (VDCSENSE) is derived from the DC voltage 212(V_(in)) via a resistor divider network formed by R47, R46 and R52, andis applied to the processor 550-A as a signal representing the voltage212 (V_(in)).

As discussed above, by virtue of the fed-forward term P_(TOTAL)representing the total anticipated power draw, the overall control loopresponse of the power factor correction apparatus 520-A and theprocessor 550-A is significantly improved so as to reduce fluctuationsin the voltage 212 (V_(in)) provided to the power control apparatus200A, 200B, and 200C, particularly in situations in which one or moredesired load powers traverse a wide range in a short time period (e.g.,load full off to load full on, or vice versa). By mitigatingfluctuations of V_(in) due to significant/sudden load power demandrequirements, a more stable power factor correction control may berealized. Additionally, smaller circuit components (such as a smallerfilter capacitor 35) may be employed based on more predictableexpectations for signal values, thereby reducing the cost and/or size ofthe implemented circuits.

While the “feed-forward” power factor correction technique discussedabove in connection with FIGS. 22A, 22B and 22C is described inconnection with a lighting apparatus 500 including multiple loads 100A,100B and 100C, it should be appreciated that this power factorcorrection technique is not limited in this respect. Rather, theconcepts discussed above in connection with FIGS. 22A, 22B and 22C maybe more generally applied for power factor correction of any numberand/or types of loads, wherein some information relating to theanticipated power drawn by the load(s) is used to facilitate the powerfactor correction function.

FIG. 23 is a block diagram illustrating yet another embodiment of thepresent disclosure, based on the lighting apparatus 500 of FIGS. 22 or22A. In the embodiment of FIG. 23, multiple lighting apparatus 500A,500B and 500C, similar to that shown in FIGS. 22 or 22A, may be coupledtogether to form a lighting network 620. As shown in FIG. 23, in oneimplementation of such a network, each lighting apparatus receivesoperating power from an AC line voltage 67 and accordingly includes abridge rectifier and may optionally include a power factor correctionapparatus, as discussed above in connection with FIGS. 22 or 22A, 22Band 22C. Additionally, multiple lighting apparatus forming the network620 may be configured to receive commonly distributed input information208 that may be provided, for example, from one or more networkcontrollers 625.

In one aspect of this embodiment, multiple lighting apparatus formingthe network 620 shown in FIG. 23 may have respective unique identifiers(e.g., addresses) such that a given lighting apparatus may be configuredto be responsive to particular portions of the input information 208(e.g., power control commands) that pertain to it. In another aspect ofthis embodiment, the configuration of the multiple lighting apparatus toeach receive operating power in the form of an AC line voltage 67facilitates lighting network implementations that may includesignificant numbers of lighting apparatus distributed over substantialdistances, while nonetheless ensuring an appreciably efficient use ofpower across the lighting network 620. Again, it should be appreciatedthat while FIG. 23 illustrates three lighting apparatus 500A, 500B and500C, the network 620 is not limited in this respect, as differentnumbers of lighting apparatus may be coupled together to form thenetwork 620.

In yet another network implementation based on the general networkarchitecture discussed above in connection with FIG. 23, multiplelighting apparatus coupled to form a network may include neither abridge rectifier nor a power factor correction apparatus;

instead, a common bridge rectifier and optional power factor correctionapparatus may be “shared” amongst multiple lighting apparatus of thenetwork. FIG. 23A illustrates such a network implementation, in which acommon DC input voltage 212 provided by either a shared bridge rectifier68 or power factor correction apparatus 520 serves as the powerdistribution medium and is thus shared amongst multiple lightingapparatus 500A-1, 500B-1 and 500C-1 of the network. Again, each of thelighting apparatus 500A-1, 500B-1 and 500C-1 differs from the lightingapparatus 500 shown in FIG. 22 in that a bridge rectifier and optionalpower factor correction apparatus is not required in each lightingapparatus (an example of this is shown explicitly in FIG. 23A by thelighting apparatus 500A-1). As discussed above in connection with FIG.21, by distributing a DC source of power throughout the network via arelatively high DC voltage, resistive power losses that may otherwise besignificant for network implementations involving substantial cablelengths may be reduced, thereby increasing power efficiency.

In another network implementation based on the general configurationshown in FIG. 23A, a modified power factor correction apparatusaccording to the present disclosure, similar to that discussed above inconnection with FIGS. 22A, 22B and 22C, may be employed. In such animplementation, the network controller 625 may be configured to providea control signal 73 to the power factor correction apparatus based oninformation known in advance relating to the anticipated power to bedrawn by all of the loads on the network at any given time, which can bederived from the input information 208. While not explicitly shown inFIG. 23A, the network controller in this configuration may also beconfigured to monitor the rectified line voltage 65 (V_(AC)), thedistributed voltage 212, and some parameter relating to the currentI_(AC) drawn from the line voltage to provide the control signal 73 tothe power factor correction apparatus, in a manner similar to thatdiscussed above in connection with FIGS. 22A, 22B and 22C.

FIGS. 24A through 24E are diagrams illustrating various views of housingconfigurations for the lighting apparatus 500 of FIG. 22 or 22A,according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. In particular,FIGS. 24A through 24E illustrate an essentially linear housing 1402 forthe lighting apparatus 500, in which may be disposed the bridgerectifier 68, the optional power factor correction apparatus 520, theprocessor 550, one or more power control apparatus 200 and associatedLED-based load(s) 100. In one aspect, the top of the housing 1402 mayinclude a slot 1408 into which the LEDs of the load(s) 100 are disposed.In another aspect, the housing 1402 also may include a lens 1412 forprotecting the LEDs 100 and/or shaping (e.g., diffusing) light generatedby the LEDs.

As also shown in FIGS. 24A through 24B, the housing 1402 may include oneor more connectors 1404A and 1404B through which the AC line voltage 67and input information 208 are provided to the apparatus 500. In oneaspect, the connectors 1404A and 1404B may be configured in acomplimentary (e.g., male/female) arrangement, such that a connector1404A of a first lighting apparatus may be electrically and mechanicallycoupled to a complimentary connector 1404B of a second lightingapparatus, so as to facilitate electrical and mechanical coupling ofmultiple lighting apparatus (e.g., as discussed above in connection withFIG. 23). In yet another aspect, the housing 1402 may include a cover1414 (see FIG. 24B) for covering one or more of the connectors 1404A,1404B if the connector is not in use.

As illustrated in FIG. 24A, in one exemplary implementation, one or moreconnectors 1404A, 1404B of the housing 1402 may be configured so as toextend outwardly from the housing 1402. Alternatively, in anotherpossible implementation illustrated in FIGS. 24B through 24E, thehousing 1402 may be configured such that one or more connectors 1404A,1404B do not extend substantially beyond a perimeter edge of thehousing, thereby facilitating multiple lighting apparatus 500 to beabutted against each other in a contiguous fashion.

While several embodiments discussed above generally relate to“feed-forward” power control apparatus, according to other embodimentsvarious power control apparatus may be implemented which incorporatesome type of feedback relating to the load, while nonetheless providingstreamlined and power efficient circuit solutions.

For example, FIG. 25 illustrates a circuit in which a switch controllerobtains voltage feedback from an LED-based load via a current regulator.In the embodiment of FIG. 26, two different LED-based loads are drivenvia a single inductor, wherein one of the loads is driven at a highercurrent than the other load. In this embodiment, again voltage feedbackis provided from each LED-based load via current regulators. In FIG. 26,the inductor L1 charges capacitor C2 during transistor QIA's on time,and the energy stored in L1 is split between C2 and C3 during the offtime. Transistor Q2A may be further enabled to reduce current in loadLED2.

In the embodiment of FIG. 27, again two different LED-based loads aredriven via a single inductor, wherein one of the loads is driven at ahigher voltage than the other load. Like FIGS. 25 and 26, voltagefeedback is provided from each load via current regulators. In FIG. 27,controller #2 enables switch Q2A to divert power flow from LED string 1and LED string 2. The controllers may alternate enabling string 1 andstring 2 to achieve consistent power flow between strings in any desiredratio.

In the embodiment of FIG. 28, three LED-based loads are driven with asingle inductor based on current regulator voltage feedback, wherein theload LED 1 is driven at a higher voltage than the loads LED2 and LED3,which run at similar voltages. In the embodiment of FIG. 29, again threeLED-based loads are driven with a single inductor based on currentregulator voltage feedback in an arrangement similar to that shown inFIG. 28; however, in FIG. 29, circuitry is included to regulate theminimum voltage of loads LED2 or LED3 without knowing in advance whichis smaller.

In the embodiment of FIG. 30, three or more LED strings are driven witha single inductor based on current regulator voltage feedback, whereinthe string LED1 runs at a higher voltage than the other loads.Similarly, in the embodiment of FIG. 31, three LED strings are drivenwith a single inductor based on current regulator voltage feedback,wherein the strings LED1 and LED2 run at a higher voltage than thestring LED3.

In the embodiment of FIG. 32, one LED string is driving with a singleinductor based on current regulator voltage feedback, and incorporatesmodifications for a minimum regulating, PWM compatible currentregulator. In this embodiment, R1 supplies a little excess current whichprevents reduction of voltage across C2 when operated at zero dutycycle. R1's lower terminal may optionally be connected so as to allowderivation of a supply voltage for the PSU controller.

In the embodiment of FIG. 33, two or three LED strings are driven with asingle transformer, based on current regulator voltage feedback, whereinLED string one runs at a higher voltage than the other two LED strings.In FIG. 34, the order of the load, diode and transistor in each stringis rearranged to illustrate an alternative implementation of theembodiment of FIG. 33.

Having thus described several illustrative embodiments, it is to beappreciated that various alterations, modifications, and improvementswill readily occur to those skilled in the art. Such alterations,modifications, and improvements are intended to be part of thisdisclosure, and are intended to be within the spirit and scope of thisdisclosure. While some examples presented herein involve specificcombinations of functions or structural elements, it should beunderstood that those functions and elements may be combined in otherways, based on the general teachings of the present disclosure, toaccomplish the same or different objectives. In particular, acts,elements, and features discussed in connection with one embodiment arenot intended to be excluded from similar or other roles in otherembodiments. Accordingly, the foregoing description and attacheddrawings are by way of example only, and are not intended to belimiting.

1. An apparatus, comprising: at least one energy transfer element tostore input energy derived from a power source and to provide outputenergy to a load; at least one switch coupled to the at least one energytransfer element to control at least the input energy stored to the atleast one energy transfer element; and at least one switch controllerconfigured to receive at least one variable control signal representinga variable desired load power and control the at least one switch inresponse to the at least one control signal, wherein the at least oneswitch controller does not receive any feedback information relating tothe load to control the at least one switch.
 2. The apparatus of claim1, wherein the apparatus is configured such that neither a load voltagenor a load current is monitored or regulated.
 3. The apparatus of claim2, wherein the at least one switch controller is configured to controlat least one of a frequency and a duty cycle of multiple switchingoperations of the at least one switch so as to provide a controllablyvariable power to the load.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein: the atleast one switch includes only one single switch; a DC supply voltageprovides the power source; the apparatus is configured to apply a firstconverted DC voltage across the load; and the at least one switchcontroller is further configured to control the one single switch tofacilitate a first conversion of the DC supply voltage to the firstconverted DC voltage and concurrently provide a controllably variablepower to the load.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the at least oneswitch controller is further configured to control at least one powerfactor correction apparatus based at least in part on the at least onecontrol signal representing the desired load power.
 6. The apparatus ofclaim 1, wherein the at least one switch controller is configured tocontrol the at least one switch based on at least one of a voltageoutput by the power source and a current drawn from the power source,and the at least one control signal representing the desired load power.7. An apparatus, comprising: at least one energy transfer element tostore input energy derived from a power source and to provide outputenergy to a load; at least one switch coupled to the at least one energytransfer element to control at least the input energy stored to the atleast one energy transfer element; and at least one switch controllerconfigured to receive at least one control signal representing a desiredload power and control the at least one switch in response to the atleast one control signal, wherein the at least one switch controllerdoes not receive any feedback information relating to the load tocontrol the at least one switch, wherein the at least one switchcontroller is configured as an addressable device so as to facilitatecontrol of the apparatus via a network.
 8. The apparatus of claim 7,wherein the at least one control signal representing the desired powerto the load is formatted using a DMX protocol.
 9. The apparatus of claim6, further comprising an energy transfer arrangement that includes theat least one energy transfer element, the at least one switch, and atleast one diode, wherein the energy transfer arrangement is configuredas one of a buck converter, a boost converter, a buck-boost converter, aCUK converter, a flyback converter and a forward converter.
 10. Theapparatus of claim 9, wherein the at least one switch controller isconfigured to control the at least one switch to perform multipleswitching operations in at least one time period, each switchingoperation transferring a predetermined quantum of the input energy tothe at least one energy transfer element.
 11. The apparatus of claim 10,wherein the at least one switch controller is configured to control themultiple switching operations so as to vary at least one of: thepredetermined quantum of the input energy for at least two switchingoperations; and a number of the multiple switching operations in the atleast one time period, so as to provide a controllably variable power tothe load.
 12. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the at least one switchcontroller is configured to control the at least one switch using adiscontinuous mode switching technique.
 13. The apparatus of claim 12,wherein the at least one switch controller is configured to control atleast one of a frequency and a duty cycle of multiple switchingoperations of the at least one switch, based on the at least one controlsignal representing the desired load power.
 14. The apparatus of claim13, wherein the at least one switch controller is configured tocontrollably vary the duty cycle of the multiple switching operations,based on the at least one control signal representing the desired loadpower, while holding substantially constant the frequency of themultiple switching operations.
 15. The apparatus of claim 13, whereinthe at least one switch controller is configured to controllably varythe duty cycle of the multiple switching operations, based on the atleast one control signal representing the desired load power.
 16. Theapparatus of claim 15, wherein the at least one switch controller isconfigured to controllably vary the duty cycle of the multiple switchingoperations based at least on the current drawn from the power source.17. The apparatus of claim 16, further comprising at least one currentsensing device, coupled to the at least one switch, to generate a valuerepresenting the current drawn from the power source, wherein the atleast one switch controller is configured to controllably vary the dutycycle of the multiple switching operations based on a comparison of thevalue representing the current drawn from the power source and the atleast one control signal representing the desired power to the load. 18.The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the at least one switch controllercomprises: a comparator to make the comparison of the value representingthe current drawn from the power source and the at least one controlsignal representing the desired power to the load; an oscillator togenerate a pulse stream having the frequency of the multiple switchingoperations; and a pulse width modulator, coupled to the comparator, theoscillator, and the at least one switch, and configured to generate apulse width modulated signal, based on the comparison and the pulsestream, to control the at least one switch.
 19. The apparatus of claim15, wherein the at least one switch controller is configured tocontrollably vary the duty cycle of the multiple switching operationsbased at least on the voltage output from the power source.
 20. Theapparatus of claim 19, wherein the at least one switch controller isconfigured to controllably vary the duty cycle of the multiple switchingoperations based on a comparison of a value representing the voltageoutput by the power source and the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired power to the load.
 21. An apparatus,comprising: at least one energy transfer element to store input energyderived from a power source and to provide output energy to a load; atleast one switch coupled to the at least one energy transfer element tocontrol at least the input energy stored to the at least one energytransfer element; and at least one switch controller configured toreceive at least one control signal representing a desired load powerand control the at least one switch in response to the at least onecontrol signal, wherein the at least one switch controller does notreceive any feedback information relating to the load to control the atleast one switch, wherein the at least one switch controller isconfigured to control the at least one switch based on at least one of avoltage output by the power source and a current drawn from the powersource, and the at least one control signal representing the desiredload power, and wherein the at least one switch controller comprises: ananalog to digital converter, coupled to the voltage output by the powersource, to generate the value representing the voltage output by thepower source; an oscillator to generate a pulse stream having afrequency of multiple switching operations of the at least one switch;and a processor to make a comparison of the value representing thevoltage output by the power source and the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired power to the load, the processor furtherconfigured to generate a pulse width modulated signal, based on thecomparison and the pulse stream, to control the at least one switch. 22.The apparatus of claim 13, wherein the at least one switch controller isconfigured to controllably vary the frequency of the multiple switchingoperations, based on the at least one control signal representing thedesired load power, while holding substantially constant the duty cycleof the multiple switching operations.
 23. The apparatus of claim 13,wherein the at least one switch controller is configured to controllablyvary the frequency of the multiple switching operations, based on the atleast one control signal representing the desired load power.
 24. Theapparatus of claim 23, wherein the at least one switch controller isconfigured to controllably vary the frequency by controllably varying aneffective frequency of the multiple switching operations using a pulsenumber modulation technique.
 25. The apparatus of claim 24, wherein theat least one switch controller comprises a pulse generation controller,the pulse generation controller comprising: an oscillator to generate apulse stream having a reference frequency; and at least one componentconfigured to receive the pulse stream having the reference frequencyand output a modified pulse stream having the effective frequency of themultiple switching operations, wherein the effective frequency may becontrollably varied based on the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired load power.
 26. The apparatus of claim 25,wherein the at least one component comprises: an N-bit register to storea digital value representing the effective frequency, based on the atleast one control signal representing the desired load power; an N-bitaccumulator, coupled to the oscillator, to receive the pulse stream as aclock signal having the reference frequency; and an adder, coupled tothe N-bit register and the N-bit accumulator, to add the digital valuestored in the N-bit register and an accumulator value stored in theN-bit accumulator to provide a summed value, wherein the summed value isprovided as an input to the N-bit accumulator, and the modified pulsestream having the effective frequency is provided as a carry signaloutput by the N-bit accumulator.
 27. The apparatus of claim 26, whereinthe number N is selected such that a minimum-to-maximum frequency ratiofor the effective frequency, defined by the quantity (1:2^(N)), is lessthan a predetermined required minimum ratio, so as to enhance a powerresolution capability of the pulse generation controller.
 28. Theapparatus of claim 27, wherein the predetermined required minimum ratiois approximately 1:1000, and wherein the number N is greater than 10.29. The apparatus of claim 27, wherein the digital value representingthe effective frequency includes an offset related to a differencebetween the minimum-to-maximum frequency ratio and the predeterminedrequired minimum ratio.
 30. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein the atleast one component further comprises a shift register, coupled to theN-bit register, to receive the at least one control signal representingthe desired load power and provide the offset to the digital value. 31.The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the at least one switch controller isconfigured to determine the duty cycle of the multiple switchingoperations based at least on a comparison of a value representing thecurrent drawn from the power source and a set point value representing adesired duty cycle.
 32. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the at leastone switch controller is configured to determine the duty cycle of themultiple switching operations based at least on a comparison of a valuerepresenting the voltage output from the power source and a set pointvalue representing a desired duty cycle.
 33. The apparatus of claim 13,wherein the at least one switch controller is configured to control bothof the frequency and the duty cycle of the multiple switching operationsof the at least one switch, based on the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired power to the load.
 34. The apparatus of claim33, wherein the at least one switch controller is configured to controlthe frequency by controllably varying an effective frequency of themultiple switching operations using a pulse number modulation technique.35. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein the at least one switchcontroller is configured to controllably vary the duty cycle of themultiple switching operations based at least on the current drawn fromthe power source.
 36. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein the at leastone switch controller is configured to controllably vary the duty cycleof the multiple switching operations based at least on the voltageoutput from the power source.
 37. The apparatus of claim 13, wherein theat least one switch controller comprises a processor to receive the atleast one control signal representing the desired power to the load, theprocessor being configured to control at least one of the frequency andthe duty cycle of the multiple switching operations based on a relativerange of the desired power to the load.
 38. The apparatus of claim 37,wherein the desired power to the load includes at least a first rangeand a second range, wherein the processor is configured to control onlyone of the frequency and the duty cycle of the multiple switchingoperations in the first range, and wherein the processor is configuredto control both of the frequency and the duty cycle of the multipleswitching operations in the second range.
 39. The apparatus of claim 37,wherein the desired power to the load includes at least a first range, asecond range, and a third range, and wherein the processor is configuredto control only the frequency of the multiple switching operations inthe first range, only the duty cycle of the multiple switchingoperations in the second range, and both of the frequency and the dutycycle of the multiple switching operations in the third range.
 40. Theapparatus of claim 37, wherein the processor is an addressable device soas to facilitate control of the apparatus via a network.
 41. Theapparatus of claim 40, wherein the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired power to the load is formatted using a DMXprotocol.
 42. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein the at least one switchcontroller is configured to determine the duty cycle of the multipleswitching operations based at least on the current drawn from the powersource.
 43. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein the at least one switchcontroller is configured to determine the duty cycle of the multipleswitching operations based at least on the voltage output from the powersource.
 44. The apparatus of claim 13, wherein the at least one energytransfer element includes at least one of a tapped inductor and atransformer with a non-unity turns ratio.
 45. The apparatus of claim 44,wherein the energy transfer arrangement is configured as a buckconverter.
 46. The apparatus of claim 45, further comprising the load,wherein the load includes at least one LED.
 47. A method, comprisingacts of: A) storing input energy derived from a power source to at leastone energy transfer element; B) providing output energy from the atleast one energy transfer element to a load; C) controlling at least theinput energy stored to the at least one energy transfer element via atleast one switch coupled to the at least one energy transfer element; D)receiving at least one variable control signal representing a variabledesired load power; and E) controlling the at least one switch inresponse to the at least one control signal without receiving anyfeedback information relating to the load.
 48. The method of claim 47,wherein the act B) comprises an act of: providing the output energywithout regulating either a load voltage or a load current.
 49. Themethod of claim 47, wherein the act E) comprises an act of: controllingthe at least one switch without monitoring either a load voltage or aload current.
 50. The method of claim 49, wherein the act B) comprisesan act of: providing the output energy without regulating either a loadvoltage or a load current.
 51. The method of claim 50, wherein the actE) comprises an act of: controlling at least one of a frequency and aduty cycle of multiple switching operations of the at least one switchso as to provide a controllably variable power to the load.
 52. Themethod of claim 47, wherein the at least one switch includes only onesingle switch, wherein a DC supply voltage provides the power source,wherein a first converted DC voltage is applied across the load, andwherein the act E) comprises an act of: controlling the one singleswitch to facilitate a first conversion of the DC supply voltage to thefirst converted DC voltage and concurrently provide a controllablyvariable power to the load.
 53. The method of claim 47, furthercomprising an act of: controlling at least one power factor correctionapparatus based at least in part on the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired load power.
 54. The method of claim 47, whereinthe act E) comprises an act of: E1) controlling the at least one switchbased on at least one of a voltage output by the power source and acurrent drawn from the power source, and the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired load power.
 55. A method, comprising acts of:A) storing input energy derived from a power source to at least oneenergy transfer element; B) providing output energy from the at leastone energy transfer element to a load; C) controlling at least the inputenergy stored to the at least one energy transfer element via at leastone switch coupled to the at least one energy transfer element; D)receiving at least one control signal representing a desired load power;E) controlling the at least one switch in response to the at least onecontrol signal without receiving any feedback information relating tothe load; and F) transmitting the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired power to the load as at least one addressedcontrol signal.
 56. The method of claim 55, further comprising an act offormatting the at least one control signal representing the desiredpower to the load using a DMX protocol.
 57. The method of claim 54,further comprising an energy transfer arrangement that includes the atleast one energy transfer element, the at least one switch, and at leastone diode, wherein the energy transfer arrangement is configured as oneof a buck converter, a boost converter, a buck-boost converter, a CUKconverter, a flyback converter and a forward converter.
 58. The methodof claim 57, wherein the act E1) comprises an act of: E2) controllingthe at least one switch to perform multiple switching operations in atleast one time period, each switching operation transferring apredetermined quantum of the input energy to the at least one energytransfer element.
 59. The method of claim 58, wherein the act E2)comprises an act of: controlling the multiple switching operations so asto vary at least one of: the predetermined quantum of the input energyfor at least two switching operations; and a number of the multipleswitching operations in the at least one time period, so as to provide acontrollably variable power to the load.
 60. The method of claim 57,wherein the act E1) comprises an act of: E2) controlling the at leastone switch using a discontinuous mode switching technique.
 61. Themethod of claim 60, wherein the act E2) comprises an act of: E3)controlling at least one of a frequency and a duty cycle of multipleswitching operations of the at least one switch, based on the at leastone control signal representing the desired load power.
 62. The methodof claim 61, wherein the act E3) comprises an act of: controllablyvarying the duty cycle of the multiple switching operations, based onthe at least one control signal representing the desired load power,while holding substantially constant the frequency of the multipleswitching operations.
 63. The method of claim 61, wherein the act E3)comprises an act of: E4) controllably varying the duty cycle of themultiple switching operations, based on the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired load power.
 64. The method of claim 63, whereinthe act E4) comprises an act of: E5) controllably varying the duty cycleof the multiple switching operations based at least on the current drawnfrom the power source.
 65. The method of claim 64, further comprising atleast one current sensing device, coupled to the at least one switch, togenerate a value representing the current drawn from the power source,wherein the act E5) comprises an act of: E6) controllably varying theduty cycle of the multiple switching operations based on a comparison ofthe value representing the current drawn from the power source and theat least one control signal representing the desired power to the load.66. The method of claim 65, wherein the act E6) further comprises actsof: making a comparison of the value representing the current drawn fromthe power source and the at least one control signal representing thedesired power to the load; generating a pulse stream having thefrequency of the multiple switching operations; and generating a pulsewidth modulated signal, based on the comparison and the pulse stream, tocontrol the at least one switch.
 67. The method of claim 63, wherein theact E4) comprises an act of: E5) controllably varying the duty cycle ofthe multiple switching operations based at least on the voltage outputfrom the power source.
 68. The method of claim 67, wherein the act E5)comprises an act of: E6) controllably varying the duty cycle of themultiple switching operations based on a comparison of a valuerepresenting the voltage output by the power source and the at least onecontrol signal representing the desired power to the load.
 69. A method,comprising acts of: A) storing input energy derived from a power sourceto at least one energy transfer element; B) providing output energy fromthe at least one energy transfer element to a load; C) controlling atleast the input energy stored to the at least one energy transferelement via at least one switch coupled to the at least one energytransfer element; D) receiving at least one control signal representinga desired load power; and E) controlling the at least one switch inresponse to the at least one control signal without receiving anyfeedback information relating to the load, wherein the act E) comprisesan act of: E1) controlling the at least one switch based on at least oneof a voltage output by the power source and a current drawn from thepower source, and the at least one control signal representing thedesired load power, and wherein the act E1) comprises acts of:generating a pulse stream having a frequency of multiple switchingoperations of the at least one switch; making a comparison of a valuerepresenting the voltage output by the power source and the at least onecontrol signal representing the desired power to the load; andgenerating a pulse width modulated signal, based on the comparison andthe pulse stream, to control the at least one switch.
 70. The method ofclaim 61, wherein the act E3) comprises an act of: controllably varyingthe frequency of the multiple switching operations, based on the atleast one control signal representing the desired load power, whileholding substantially constant the duty cycle of the multiple switchingoperations.
 71. The method of claim 61, wherein the act E3) comprises anact of: E4) controllably varying the frequency of the multiple switchingoperations, based on the at least one control signal representing thedesired load power.
 72. The method of claim 71, wherein the act E4)comprises an act of: E5) controllably varying the frequency bycontrollably varying an effective frequency of the multiple switchingoperations using a pulse number modulation technique.
 73. The method ofclaim 72, wherein the act E5) comprises acts of: E6) generating a pulsestream having a reference frequency; and E7) generating a modified pulsestream based on the pulse stream having the reference frequency, themodified pulse stream having the effective frequency of the multipleswitching operations.
 74. The method of claim 73, wherein the act E7)comprises acts of: storing an N-bit digital value representing theeffective frequency, based on the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired load power; inputting the pulse stream as aclock signal having the reference frequency to an N-bit accumulator; andadding the N-bit digital value to an accumulator value stored in theN-bit accumulator to provide a summed value, inputting the summed valueto the N-bit accumulator; and providing the modified pulse stream havingthe effective frequency as a carry signal output by the N-bitaccumulator.
 75. The method of claim 74, further comprising an act of:selecting the number N such that a minimum-to-maximum frequency ratiofor the effective frequency, defined by the quantity (1:2^(N)), is lessthan a predetermined required minimum ratio, so as to enhance a powerresolution capability of the pulse generation controller.
 76. The methodof claim 75, wherein the predetermined required minimum ratio isapproximately 1:1000, and wherein the number N is greater than
 10. 77.The method of claim 75, further comprising an act of: including anoffset to the N-bit digital value representing the effective frequency,wherein the offset relates to a difference between theminimum-to-maximum frequency ratio and the predetermined requiredminimum ratio.
 78. The method of claim 73, further comprising an act of:determining the duty cycle of the multiple switching operations based atleast on a comparison of a value representing the current drawn from thepower source and a set point value representing a desired duty cycle.79. The method of claim 73, further comprising an act of: determiningthe duty cycle of the multiple switching operations based at least on acomparison of a value representing the voltage output from the powersource and a set point value representing a desired duty cycle.
 80. Themethod of claim 61, wherein the act E3) comprises an act of: E4)controlling both of the frequency and the duty cycle of the multipleswitching operations of the at least one switch, based on the at leastone control signal representing the desired power to the load.
 81. Themethod of claim 80, wherein the act E4) comprises an act of: controllingthe frequency by controllably varying an effective frequency of themultiple switching operations using a pulse number modulation technique.82. The method of claim 81, wherein the act E4) comprises an act of:controlling the duty cycle of the multiple switching operations based atleast on the current drawn from the power source.
 83. The method ofclaim 81, wherein the act E4) comprises an act of: controlling the dutycycle of the multiple switching operations based at least on the voltageoutput by the power source.
 84. The method of claim 61, wherein the actE3) comprises an act of: E4) controlling at least one of the frequencyand the duty cycle of the multiple switching operations based on arelative range of the desired power to the load.
 85. The method of claim84, wherein the desired power to the load includes at least a firstrange and a second range, and wherein the act E4) comprises acts of:controlling only one of the frequency and the duty cycle of the multipleswitching operations in the first range; and controlling both of thefrequency and the duty cycle of the multiple switching operations in thesecond range.
 86. The method of claim 84, wherein the desired power tothe load includes at least a first range, a second range, and a thirdrange, and wherein the act E4) comprises acts of: controlling only thefrequency of the multiple switching operations in the first range;controlling only the duty cycle of the multiple switching operations inthe second range; and controlling both of the frequency and the dutycycle of the multiple switching operations in the third range.
 87. Themethod of claim 84, further comprising an act of transmitting the atleast one control signal representing the desired power to the load asat least one addressed control signal.
 88. The method of claim 87,further comprising an act of formatting the at least one control signalrepresenting the desired power to the load using a DMX protocol.
 89. Themethod of claim 84, wherein the act E4) comprises an act of: determiningthe duty cycle of the multiple switching operations based at least onthe current drawn from the power source.
 90. The method of claim 84,wherein the act E4) comprises an act of: determining the duty cycle ofthe multiple switching operations based at least on the voltage outputby the power source.
 91. The method of claim 61, wherein the at leastone energy transfer element includes at least one of a tapped inductorand a transformer with a non-unity turns ratio.
 92. The method of claim91, wherein the energy transfer arrangement is configured as a buckconverter.
 93. The method of claim 92, further comprising the load,wherein the load includes at least one LED.